Marine Biological Laboratory Library

Woods Hole, Massachusetts

Gift of F.R. Lillie estate - 197?

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swallowtail butterfly.

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LIFE CYCLE OF BLACK SWALLOWTAIL BUTTERFLY.

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JIATWOJJAW8 aOAJa "50 HJOYO H1IJ

ELEMENTARY

T

L

STUDIES

IN

INSECT LIFE

BY

SAMUEL J. HUNTER, A. M.

ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY AND
ENTOMOLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS

CRANE & COMPANY, PUBLISHERS

TOPEKA, KANSAB

1908

Copyrighted by

CRANE A COMPANY, Topeka, Kansas
1902

PREFACE.

NATURAL science studies are essentially studies of
things, not books. The teacher in preparing a course
of instruction must he governed largely hy the ma-
terial procurable. Work in marine biology can never
be properly conducted away from the seashore, nor
tropical life thoroughly presented in the temperate
zone. In the study of animal life, insects present a
fertile field. They outnumber all other forms, and are
ever accessible. Under observation in their native
haunts, or, in many cases, surrounded by artificial con-
ditions, they conduct themselves naturally. The study
of insects has therefore come to form a prominent part
of zoological instruction.

This book on insect life is divided into two parts.
Part I deals with the development of insects and their
relations to their surroundings. Part II is devoted to
Methods, Equipment, and Laboratory Exercises. The
laboratory exercises consist of elementary work in the
development, structure, function, and systematic ar-
rangement of insects. The two parts are intended to be
taken together. For example, in the laboratory exer-
cises on metamorphosis, the detailed account of the life
histories in Part I furnishes additional suggestions on
points to be observed; the discussion of the special
sense accompanies the anatomical work ; the chapter on
wealth of insect life amplifies the schemes of classifica-

(iii)

IV PREFACE

tion ; and so on. The sequence of the work will be de-
termined largely by the season of the year. Life his-
tories and ecology will naturally be confined to spring
and fall. During the winter months anatomical work
can be well conducted upon material previously pre-
served.

The aim of the book has not been to familiarize the
student with a number of isolated facts. It has been
the endeavor to induce the student to become ac-
quainted, through personal observations in the field
and laboratory, with some of the important biological
problems as presented by insects. Insects exist in cer-
tain given shapes, and in great or few numbers. There
are reasons for such conditions, causes which, wher-
ever possible, the student should be led to see. Insects
affect one another ; they bear certain relations to physi-
cal conditions, and to other forms of life, both plant
and animal. They affect man himself. These inter-
relations are subjects to be kept in view.

Insect life furnishes many practical subjects for
nature-study lessons. Things that live and move elicit
the interest and attention of pupils. Nature-study, to
have an educative or disciplinary value, must not stop
with superficial or passing observations. The educa-
tive value derived from nature study does not consist
in the number of facts imparted, but in the develop-
ment of the ability to acquire knowledge through care-
ful and independent personal observation. The pupil
at a glance will see that a caterpillar has come out of
the egg, the caterpillar has changed to a chrysalis, and
later that a butterfly has emerged from this chrysalis.

PREFACE V

In truth, the pupil may have known this before
coming under the teacher's guidance. A repetition
with no addition will tend to dull the interest. The
pupil should be encouraged to see that much remains to
be observed. The author believes that there is material
in this book which will meet the requirements of nature-
study along the lines represented. This opinion is
strengthened by the fact that teachers who have pur-
sued this work under the author's direction have after-
ward used it successfully in the nature-study lessons
in the lower grades of the public schools.

The illustrations have received special consideration.
In places they supplant the text. For example : Fol-
lowing the account of the life cycle of the butterfly, a
day-flying form, there are twenty-one figures illustrat-
ing the stages of growth and development of a moth, a
night-flying form, belonging to the same group. It is
believed that this manner of presenting the character-
istic differences will tend to induce personal observa-
tions on the developing forms themselves.

The colored plates, and drawings where not other-
wise credited, are the work of Miss Ella Weeks, to
whom the author wishes to express his obligations.
These were all drawn from nature or mounted speci-
mens, and were originally prepared for this work with
the exceptions of figures 153, 154, 156, 158, 159, from
articles by the author in the Kansas University Quar-
terly; and figures 112, 116, 117, 171, 172, 193-207,
209-211, from contribution ~No. 65, a department pub-
lication by the author. Figures 50, 108, 168, 170, and
180 are photographs from department negatives. The

VI PREFACE

remaining photographs, not accredited, have been pho-
tographed from nature or preserved specimens by the
author for this work.

The author wishes to express his thanks to Miss
M. E. Wise for the drawings 'which bear her name, to
Professor M. V. Slingerland for photographs, to Pro-
fessor E. A. Birge for the nse of electros for figures 5G
and 58, to Mr. M. B. AYaite for the nse of electros for
figures 72-84, to the Century Company for the electro
for figure 65, to the Goulds Company for electros used
for producing figures 231-234. Specific acknowledg-
ment accompanies each of these illustrations.

Material assistance in the preparation of this work
has been given by Professor \Y. C. Stevens, who has
kindly loaned a number of photographs, and has read
chapter VII both in manuscript and proof; by Pro-
fessor V. L. Kellogg, who has made valuable sugges-
tions; by Dr. S. AA T . AYilliston, who has read the proof-
sheets on the classification of Diptera ; and by Professor
C. E. McClnng, who has very kindly read the entire
book in proof form. An expression of the author's ap-
preciation is but a slight token in recompense for the

value of these courtesies.

SAMUEL J. HUNTER.
UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS.

CONTENTS.

PART I.

DEVELOPMENT AND ECOLOGY OF INSECTS.

CHAPTER. PAGE.

I. THE CYCLE OF LIFE, 1

Incomplete Metamorphosis, 1. Complete Metamor-
phosis. 2. Molting. -2. The Life of a Grasshopper, 3.
The Life of a Butteilly. 13. The Life of a Moth. 24.

II. THE SPECIAL SENSES, 34

Value of Sense Organs, 34. The Study of the
Special Senses, 35. The Sense of Touch., 36. The
Sense of Taste, 30. The Sense of Smell. 37. The Pro-
duction of Odors, 39. The Sense of Sight, 40. Sense
of Hearing. 43. Production of Sound, 45.

III. PROTECTIVE DEVICES, 47

The Hgg's Defense, 47. The Larva. 50. The Pupa,
50. The Adult, 50. Sympathetic Coloration, 50
Mimicry, 57.

IV. SOLITARY LIFE, 02

Social Development, 03. Mud-daubers, 03. Digger
Wasps, 00.

V. SOCIAL LIFE, 73

The Colony, 73. The Queen, 74. The Drone. 77.
The Worker, 77. Swarming, 79. Ants, 81. Wasps,
85.

VI. INSTINCT, . . . . 89

Actions of the Newly Born, 90. Acts of Mature
Life, 91. Acts Associated with Reproduction, 91.
Limitations of Instinct, 92. Instinct and Reason, 93.

(vii)

Vlll CONTENTS

CHAPTER. PAGE.

VII. THE MUTUAL RELATIONS OF PLANTS AND INSECTS, . . 94

Plants whose flowers are sterile to their own pollen
but fertile to pollen brought from other plants of
same species, 96. Plants whose flowers are so con-
structed as to prevent self -fertilization, 104. The
Yucca Lily and the Pronuba Moth, 112.

VIII. OUR FRIENDS AND FOES, 119

Of the Fruit Grower. Tent Caterpillar, 123. Can-
ker Worm, 124. The Codling Moth, 125. The Honey-
Bee, 131. Wasps, 132. Parasitic Insects, 132 Pre-
daceous Insects, 133.

Of tlie Farmer, 134. The Chinch-bug, 135. Grass-
hoppers, 137. The Army Worm, 141. The Potato
Beetle, 142. Squash-bug, 143. The Cabbage-worm,
144. Some Beneficial Insects, 145.

Of the Housekeeper, 147. The House-fly, 147. The
Buffalo Moth, 148. The Clothes Moth, 150. The Cock-
roach, 152. House Ants, 153.

Of Man in General, 154. The Mosquito, 154. Bene-
ficial Insects, 158.

IX. THE WEALTH OF INSECT LIFE ORDERS, 102

APTERA, 165. The Fish Moth, 166. The Spring-
tail, 160.

NEUROPTERA, 107. May-flies, 167. Stone-flies, 168.
-The White Ants, 169. Dragon-flies, 172. Caddis-
flies, 176.

ORTHOPTERA, 176.

Orthoptera that Walk, 178. Cockroaches, 178.
Praying Mantis, 178. Walking-sticks, 180.

Orthoptera that Jump, 180. Crickets, 180. Katy-
dids, 181. Grasshoppers, 182.

TllYSANOPTERA, 182.

HEMIPTERA, 183. The Heteroptera, 184. The Ho-
moptera, 185.

COLEOPTERA, 190.

LEPIDOPTERA, 191. Moths, 193. Skippers, 193.
Butterflies, 194.
DIPTERA, 196. Fleas, 197.

CONTENTS IX

CHAPTER. PAGE.

HYMENOPTERA, 198. Plant-eating, 198. Parasitic,
199. Stinging, 201.

X. GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION AND THE STRUGGLE FOB

LIFE, 202

Habitat, 202. Barriers, 204. Barriers to Entrance.
206. Barriers to Existence, 200. Fauna, 207. Zones
of Life, 208. Modes of Distribution. 209. Deductions,
211. The Struggle of Life, 212. Parasitism, 210.
Social Organization, 218. Feigning Death, 219. Arti-
ficial Selection, 219. Natural Selection, 220.

PART II.

METHODS AND APPARATUS. STRUCTUiK AND CLASSIFICATION OF

INSECTS.
CHAPTER. PAOE.

I. ACQUISITION AND PRESERVATION OF INSECT FORMS, . 222

Materials for Field Collecting. 223. How to Make a
Net, 223. Another way to Make a Net, 224. Preserv-
ing Materials, 225. Field Collecting, 226. Note-
book, 227. Map of the Vicinity, 228. Manner of
Keeping Records, 228. Collecting at Lights, 230.
Sugaring, 230. Preservation of Insects, 230. Cabi-
nets, 234. Arrangement of Insects, 235. Relaxing In-
sects, 230. Mailing Insects, 236.

II. LABORATORY EXERCISES 238

Incomplete Metamorphosis, 238.

The Grasshopper, 238. Acquisition of Material,
239. Care of Breeding-cages, 239. Some Points for
Observation, 240.

The Dragon-fly, 240.
Complete Metamorphosis, 242.

Swallowtail Butterfly. 242. Care of Larvae, 242.
Breeding-cage, 243. Records, 243. Care of Pupa-,
244. The Adult, 244.

The House-fly or Bluebottle-fly, 244. Egg, 244.
Larva, 245. The Pupa. 24.",. Adult. 245.
Companion Books.

X CONTENTS

CHAPTER. PAGE.

III. THE HABITS OF ANTS, 247

IV. FORM AND FUNCTION, 250

Aids in the Laboratory, 251. Preparation of Speci-
men, 253. Terms vised in Defining Position and Direc-
tions, 254.

External Divisions of the Body, 255. The Head,
255. The Thorax, 255. The Abdomen, 255.

The Head, 255.

Fixed Parts of the Head, 255. Compound Eyes,

255. Simple Eyes, 256. Epicranium, 250. Front,

256. Genae, 256. Vertex, 257. Clypeus, 257.
Movable Parts of the Head, 257. Antennae, 257

Mouth-parts, 258. Labrum, 258. Mandibles, 258.

Maxillae, 258. Lacinia, 259. Galea, 259. Palpus,

259. Labium, 259. Hypopharynx, 260.

The Thorax, 200. Prothorax, 260. Prothoracic Leg,
261. Coxa, 261. Trochanter, 261. Femur, 261.
Tibia, 261.

Mesothorax, 261. Episternum, 261. Parapteron,
262. Epimeron, 262. Ventral View, 262. Dorsal
View, 263.

Mctathorax, 263. Dorsal View, 263. Lateral View,
263. Episternum, 263. Epimeron, 203. Ventral
View, 263. The Metasternum, 263. Metathoracic
Leg, 264.

The Wings, 264. Mesothoracic Wing, 265. Meta-
thoracie Wing, 265.

The Abdomen. The First Segment, 260. The Audi-
tory Organs, 266. Second to Eighth Segments, 266.
Caudal Portion of Abdomen of Male. 267. Caudal Por-
tion of the Abdomen of the Female, 268. Ovipositor,
268. Egg Guide, 268. Spiracles, 268.

Internal Divisions of the Body, 269. Digestive Tract,
269.- Nervous System, 272. Respiratory System, 272.
Circulatory System, 275. Reproductive System, 276.

The Beetle, 276.

Mouthparts of the Cicada, 279,

CONTENTS XI

CHAPTER. PAGE.

V. KEY TO THE ORDERS AND THE PRINCIPAL FAMILIES OF

INSECTS,

Definition. Hexapoda, '283.

Orders, 283. Aptera. 284. Orthoptera, 285. Neu-
roptera, 280. Coleoptera, 287. Hymenoptera, 290.-
Hemiptera, 292. Lepidoptcra, 294. Diplera, 298.

APPENDIX.

INJURIOUS INSECTS, AND MODES OF DEALING WITH THEM. REFER-
ENCE BOOKS.

Farm J'rurticcs. Culture, 301. Preventives, 302. Rotation of
Crops, 302. Insert icidcs, 303. For insects that Chew their
Food, 303. For insects with Sucking Mouth-parts, 304. In-
accessible Insects, 305.

Injurious Insects, 308. Ants, 309. Aphids, Plant-lice, Green
Fly, 309. Insects Injurious to Apple, 309. Apricot, 312.-
Bean, 312. Blackberry. 313. Cabbage, 314. Cauliflower, 315.
Celery, 315. Cherry, 315. Corn, 316. Cucumber, 317. Cur-
rant, 318. Carpets. 319. Clover, 319. Elm, 320. Goose-
berry, 320. Grape. 320. House Plants. 322. Lettuce, 322.-
Maple, 323. Pea, 324. Peach, 324. Pear. 325. Plum, 320.
Potato, 326. Quince, 327. Raspberry, 327. Rose, 327.-
Squash. 328. Strawberry, 328. Sweet Potato, 329. Tomato,
329. Wheat, 330.

Reference Books, 331. On Protective Devices, 331. On Social
and Solitary Insects. 331. On Flowers and Insects, 331. On
Our Friends and Foes, 331. On Wealth of Insect Life, 332.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Life History of the Black Swallowtail Butterfly,

Frontispiece.
The Monarch and the Viceroy Plate II.

PAGE.

1. The Yellow Grasshopper (Mclanoplus different ialis) ,

female

2. The Yellow Grasshopper I Mcl<inoi>liift differcntialis) ,

male

Xll CONTENTS

PAGE.

3. Eggs of the Yellow Grasshopper (Melanoplus differ-

entialis) 4

4. Stages of last molt of the Yellow Grasshopper 5

5. Nymph of Melanoplus, first stage 7

G. Nymph of Melanoplus, second stage 7

7. Nymph of Melanoplus, third stage 7

8. Nymph of Melanoplus, fourth stage 7

9. Nymph of Melanoplus, fifth stage 7

10. Melanoplus adult 7

11. Vertical section of ground, showing egg-pods 9

12. Egg-pods of Melanoplus differentialis 10

13. Egg of Black Swallowtail on flower-stem of parsnip. . . 13

14. Newly hatched caterpillar 14

15. Diagram of segments of caterpillar 14

16. Caterpillars of Black Swallowtail feeding on wild celery, 15

17. Caterpillars of Black Swallowtail about to molt 10

18. Caterpillar of Black Swallowtail protruding horns

( osmatcria ) 17

19. Position of Caterpillar of Black Swallowtail before pu-

pation 18

20. Caterpillar of Black Swallowtail about to shed last

larval skin 20

21. The developing chrysalis of the Black Swallowtail 20

22. Brown pupa-case of chrysalis of Black Swallowtail 21

23. Empty pupa-case of Black Swallowtail 22

23a-23w. Twenty-one figures illustrating life of a Moth.. 24-33

24. Heads of male and female Cecropia Moths 39

25. Fragment of outer surface (cornea) of eye of Dragon-

fly 41

26. Head of Dragon-fly 41

27. Section through eye of fly (Musca vomitoria) 42

28. One of the simple eyes of the fly (Musca vomitoria) .... 42

29. Illustrating mode of vision in the many-faceted eye 43

30. Front leg of cricket 44

31. Wing-covers of male Katydid 44

32. Wing-cover of male Cricket 45

33. Lace-winged Fly and eggs 48

34. Insect (Ortliezia graminis) 48

35. Same insect with egg-mass 48

36. Elder cane showing eggs of Tree Cricket 49

CONTENTS Xlll

PAGE.

37. Larva of Caddis-fly in case of sticks 49

38. Larva of Interrogation Butterfly (Grapta interroga-

tionis ) 49

39. Pupa of Interrogation Butterfly 50

40. Dorsal view of the pupa of Black Swallowtail Butterfly, 50

41. Pupa of Interrogation Butterfly on lower side of branch, 51

42. Two pupa-cases of Black Swallowtail Butterfly 52

426. Pupa-case of Black Swallowtail Butterfly 53

43. The Bombardier Beetle (Brachynus americanus) 53

44. The " Stink-bug " (Podisus spinosus) 53

45. " Bags " of the Bag-worm Moth larvae 54

46. The sting of the worker Bee and its appendages 55

47. A Walking-stick 56

48. Leaf Butterfly (KuUinia imrnlccta) 56

4!). Caterpillar and chrysalis of the Monarch Butterfly.... 58

50. Mimicking and mimicked forms 59

51. The Honey-Bee 61

51a. A Fly 61

52. A Wasp 61

52. A Beetle 61

53. A Bumblebee 61

53. A Fly 61

54. A Mud-dauber (Pclopoeus cementarius) 64

55. Mud-daubers and their nests 65

56. Ammophila stinging caterpillar 67

57. The Tarantula-hawk (Pepsis fornwsa) 68

58. Ammophila using stone to pound down earth on burrow, 70

59. A queen Bee 74

60. Brood comb 76

61. A drone Bee 77

62. A worker Bee 78

63. Secretion of wax scales 78

64. Head and mouth-parts of worker Bee 79

65. A newly settled swarm 80

66. Hiving a swarm 81

67. " Mud shed " built by Ants for sheltering their " herds "

of Aphids

68. Yellow-jackets ( Polistes sp.) and their nests. . 86

69. Hornets' nest

70. Hornets' nest 88

XIV CONTENTS

PAGE.

71. Female Wasp i ,s'/<Ar.r siicciosnn) carrying a Cicada to

her burrow 92

72. Section of Bartlett Pear flower 90

73. Buds of Bartlett Pear 97

74. Cluster of Bartlett Pear blossoms 98

75. Flower of Bartlett Pear 99

7G. Bud of the Bartlett Pear, with petals removed 99

77. Bud of the Bartlett Pear 99

78. Bartlett Pear cross-pollinated with the pollen of the

Easter Pear 100

79. Seeds from crossed and from self-pollinated Bartlett

Pears 101

80. Self-pollinated Bartlett Pear 101

81. Baldwin Apple cross-pollinated with pollen of the Bell-

flower Apple 102

82. Large specimen of self-pollinated Baldwin Apple 102

83. Small specimen of self -pollinated Baldwin Apple 103

84. Section of an Apple blossom 103

85. A cluster of Alfalfa blossoms 105

86. Pollination of Alfalfa flower by Bee 100

87. The many-flowered umbels of the Milkweed 107

88. Flower of the Milkweed (Asclepiodora viridis) 108

89. Longitudinal section of Milkweed flower 109

90. Two pollen-masses joined by their bands 109

91. Honey-Bee caught in entrapping slit of Milkweed blos-

som 110

92. Moth held fast in Milkweed blossom 110

93. Insect caught in several flowers of Milkweed 110

94. Honey-Bee caught in several blossoms of Milkweed 110

95. Leg of insect with small chain of corpuscula 112

96. Pollen-masses attached to leg of Bee 112

97. Head of Pronuba Moth 114

98. Ovipositor of Pronuba Moth for insertion of egg in deep

ovary of Yucca Lily 114

99. Female Pronuba Moth ovipositing on ovary of Yucca

Lily 115

100. Female Pronuba Moth thrusting her tentacles and pro-

boscis into the stigmatic opening 110

101. Scale insect (Pulvinaria pruni) on Plum twigs 121

CONTENTS XV

PAGE.

102. Eggs of Apple Tree Tent Caterpillar, surrounding an

apple twig 12.!

103. Parents of the Spring Canker-Worm 124

104. Some Codling Moths 120

105. A Pear and two Apple blossoms 130

100. A Pear and two Apple blossoms 130

107. " Ladybird " and larva 133

108. Ear of Corn, damaged by Grain Moth. . . . 1 '>.">

109. Tar-covered ridge; barrier to advanec of Chinch-bugs.. 13G

110. A beneficial insect

111. Beneficial Mite 139

112. Plan for hoppenlo/er .... 140

1 13. The Potato Beetle ( l)nri/i>ln,r(i 10-lineata ) 142

114. Squash-bug (Anasa trislifi) ... 143

115. Cabbage Butterfly (Picris rapac) 144

116. Different stages in the transformation of parasitic Fly, 14(i

117. A Fly, parasitic on Grasshoppers 147

US. Bull'alo Moth larva 149

11!). Buffalo Moth I'.eetle (Anthrenus scrophulctriae) . . . . 14!)

120. Larva 1 of Clothes Moth feeding on felt 151

121. Egg-pod of Cockroach 153

122. Mosquito (Cnlf.r //?n/</o/.v) in process of development.. 154

123. Full-grown Mosquito larva and pupa 15.~>

124. Mosquito (Ciilr.e jnnii/rns) , female 1~>(>

125. Mosquito (Culex /'//</''*) , male 157

120. A Fish Moth (Lci>ixin<i sp. ) Itili

127. Spring-tail ((.'ori/noUirix liurculix) 107

128. A May-fly 108

129. Stone-fly nymph 1G9

130. A Stone-fly ( l'< rla cphi/rc) 109

131. White Ants 170

132. A king White Ant 170

133. White Ant queen 170

134. Nest of White Ants on post 171

135. White Ants' nest on trunk of tree 171

136. Dragon-fly (Libcllulu t nildn-U<i ) 172

137. A Damsel-lly 173

138. Dragon-fly on the lookout for prey . 174

139. Side and top view of head of nymph of Dragon-fly 175

XVI CONTENTS

PAGE.

140. Skin of nymph from which Dragon-fly has emerged 175

141. A Bird-louse (Eurymetopus taurus) 175

142. A Caddis-fly (Leptocerus dilutus) 176

143. The home of the Stone-fly and the Caddis-fly 178

144. Young Mantis on the lookout for prey 178

145. Full-grown Mantis patiently waiting for an opportunity

to seize any small, unwary creature 180

146. A Mole Cricket (Oryllotalpa borealis) 181

147. Broad-winged Katydid 181

148. A Thrips 183

149. Box-elder Bug (Leptocoris trivitattus) 184

150. An Assassin-bug (Melanolestes picipes) 184

151. Giant Water -bug (Belostoma americana) 185

152. Cicada and cast-off nymphal covering 185

153. Newly hatched Scale insect 186

154. Female Scales (Aspidiotus greenii) 186

155. Adult female Scale insect (Kermes nivalis) 187

156. An unprotected Scale 187

157. Adult female Scale (Kermes pubescews) 188

158. Protected Scale insects 188

159. Protected Scale insects 189

160. Adult male Scale insect (Aspidiotus ancylus) 189

161. A Water Scavenger (Hydrophilus triangularis) 189

162. A Click Beetle (Alaus oculatus) 190

163. Wood-boring Beetle at work 190

164. A Snout Beetle (Sphenophorus ochreus) 191

165. A lake overgrown with lilies 192

166. The " Humming-bird " Moth (Phlcgethontius celeus) . . 193

167. Luna Moth (Actias luna) 194

168. " Pitcher " pupa of " Humming-bird " Moth 195

169. A Skipper (Endamus [Thorybes] bathyllus) 195

170. Interrogation Butterfly (Grapta interrogationis) 195

171. A Fly (Sarcophaga cimbicis) and its pupa-case 196

172. A Robber-fly (Erax cinerascens] with pupa-case 197

173. A Flea (Ceratopsyllus serraticeps) 197

174. A wood-boring Hymenopteron, the Pigeon Horn-tail

( Tremex columba ) 198

175. Parasitic Hymenopteron (Thalessa lunator) drilling... 200

176. Map showing habitat of the Swallowtail Skipper (Euda-

mus proteus ) 203

CONTENTS XV11

PAGE.

177. Map showing habitat of the Brown Elfin Butterfly

(Incisalia auyustus) 205

178. Map of United States, showing principal zones of life.. 210

179. Long-winged Grasshopper of the plains (Dissostcira

loii<iii>('iiiiis) 213

180. Grasshoppers invading a city 215

181. Cecropia larva bearing cocoons of a parasitic Bee 218

182. Net and hoop 224

183. Plan for a net 224

184. Map of collect ing vicinity 229

185. An insect mounted on card-point 232

186. Spreading-board for Lepidoptera 233

187. A student's cabinet 235

188. A convenient breeding-cage 243

189. Foot of House-fly 245

190. Board plan for an artificial Ant-nest 247

191. Plan for simple microscope stand 251

192. Cyanide bottle 253

193. Front view of head of Grasshopper 256

194. Clypeus and labrum 257

195. Front view of Grasshopper head with mandibles spread

out 258

196. Inner view of maxilla 258

197. Labium 259

198. Side view of prothorax with leg 260

199. Side view of thorax 262

200. Ventral view of thorax 262

201. Meta thoracic or jumping leg 264

202. Dorsal aspect of body 265

208. Exterior view of auditory organ 266

204. Side view of male 267

205. Dorsal view of caudal appendages of male 267

206. Side view of abdomen ( female ) 268

207. Side view 269

208. Digestive system of Bee 270

209. Digestive, circulatory and nervous system of female

Grasshopper 271

210. Respiratory system 273

211. Reproductive system of female Grasshopper 276

XV111 CONTENTS

PAGE.

212. Kummaging Ground-beetle (Calosoma scrutator) 277

213. Skeleton of Calosoma scrutator 278

214. Head of Cicada 281

215. Various forms of antennae of Beetles 287

216. Tarsi of Beetle 288

217. Thorax of Wasp 291

218. Thorax of Wasp 291

219. Wing of Coreid 292

220. Wing venation of Lygseidse 292

221. Wing venation of Capsidse 292

222. Wings of a Notodontid 295

223. Wing of a Hepialid Moth 295

224. Wings of a Geometrid 296

225. Wings of a Noctuid 29G

226. Wings of an Arctiid 297

227. Antennae of Diptera 298

228. Thorax of a Crane-fly 298

229. Wing venation of a Syrphid 299

230. Wing of a Muscid 299

231. The " Pomona " spray pump 304

232. " Kerowater " spray pump 306

233. Seneca spray-nozzle 308

234. Vermorel spray-nozzle 308

TOTAL NUMBER OF FIGURES, 25G.

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN
INSECT LIFE

CHAPTER I
THE CYCLE OF LIFE

HE passage of nearly every insect
from the egg- stage to maturity is
marked by a series of changes,
gradual in some, abrupt in others.
The insects which change gradually
maintain the same general appear-
ance and structure throughout life.
The insects with abrupt changes pass through stages in
which forms are assumed very unlike and not easily
associated. These striking and radical changes which
take place in growth and development are termed
metamorphoses.

Incomplete Metamorphosis.- -The young grasshopper
escaping from the egg has much the same form as its
parent, and the casual observer easily recognizes it as
a grasshopper, the only marked difference being that
it is smaller and wingless. In time, however, the full
size is attained, and with it proportionate wings. The
growth (increase in size) and development (change in
form) of this insect go on without any abrupt changes.
Insects which mature in this way are said to have an

(1)

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

incomplete metamorphosis, and in the immature stages
are spoken of as nymphs.

Complete Metamorphosis.-- It is sometimes difficult to
associate the identity of a bright-winged butterfly with
that of some ugly caterpillar. Nevertheless, every but-
terfly was once a caterpillar, and not infrequently the
most repulsive caterpillar becomes the most attractive
butterfly. The honey-bee conies from a white grub, the
house-fly from a maggot. Insects which develop in this
manner are said to have a complete metamorphosis.
They emerge from the egg in a worm-like form called
the larva, or the larval stage ; growing to considerable
size in this form, they pass into a very dissimilar stage,
the chrysalis or pupal stage, in which the insect is
quiescent and non-feeding, and during which the fully
matured insect is developed.

Molting 1 . All insects, during their growth and de-
velopment from the egg to maturity, undergo at certain
periods a process commonly known as molting. The
outward indication of this process consists in the shed-
ding of the skin. These changes are not alone for the
discarding of unyielding or chitinous coverings to
permit enlargement in bodily size, but are as well
physiological processes, attended by marked changes
in tissues and organs.

Insects with a complete metamorphosis appear in
four forms: the egg, the larva, the pupa, and the adult;
while in those with incomplete metamorphosis there are
but three forms : the egg, the nymph, and the adult.
In order that these two methods of insect growth and
development may be more fully understood, a type of
each has been selected for illustration.

THE CYCLE OF LIFE O

The Life of a Grasshopper. - Fashions and changes in
dress are not limited to people alone. In the cornfields
or in the protective shadow of some tall weeds by the
roadside, or probably in your own garden, the grass-
hoppers are laying aside old garments for bright new
ones. This is happening every day during the warm
summer months. These changes are made, because,
like children, they have outgrown their clothes. In
other words, the skeleton of the grasshopper, as we shall
see later,, is rigid and surrounds the body, acting as an
armor against the rough blades of grass and the attacks
of other insects.

FIG. 1. The yellow grasshopper (Melanoplus differentialis), female. From photograph.

FIG. 2. The yellow grasshopper (Jlelanoplus diffcrentialis), male. From photograph.

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

The grasshopper,* which has been selected to illus-
trate incomplete metamorphosis, spends the cold win-
ter days as an embryo, in an egg snch as shown in
Figure 3, along with a hundred or more similar eggs
in a pod laid in the ground the previous fall by the
mother insect. These eggs quietly await the warmth of
spring to bring them to life.

FIG. 3. Eggs of the yellow grasshopper (Melanoplus diffcrentialis). Enlarged.

The young insect, soon works its way to the surface,
where food is sought for strength and growth ; and as
it grows it assumes new forms and new garments. This
change of clothing, or shedding of skin, more properly
called molting, takes place a number of times during
its youth. The most interesting molt is the last one,
the one in which the grasshopper brings out fully de-
veloped wings from the wing-pads in the skin which is
being cast off. The observations recounted in this chap-
ter were made in a cornfield ; and from sketches taken

* The yellow grasshopper, Melanoplus diffcrentiaUs.

THE CYCLK OK I. IKK

FIG. 4.

DESCRIPTION OF FIG. 4. Various stages of the last molt of the yellow grasshopper
(Melanoplus differentiaiis). 7, nymph just before the breaking of the skin along back
of thorax ; 2, nymph beginning to come out ; 3, mature insect dropping to the ground ;
4, cast-off skin, still clinging to the leaf; 5, grasshopper climbing up, spreading wings
to dry, and getting ready to eat ; 6, fully developed grasshopper on corn-stalk.

6

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

at that time, Fig 1 . 4 lias been constructed to illustrate
this interesting transformation.

Up to this time in its growth the grasshopper is spo-
ken of as being in the nymphal stage. The plate shows
the transformation from the nymph to the adult, or as
we might say, from youth to maturity. The full-grown
nymph ceases to eat, and with the head almost invaria-
bly downward, the antenna? drooping, fastens its claws
firmly into the stalk or blade and remains quiet for a
short period, during which it can be handled without
being disturbed ; a pulsating motion begins in the cen-
ter of the back of the thorax ; this increases until the
whole thorax moves up and down ; soon the skin splits
along the back from the top of the head to a line cross-
ing the base of the front wings; the upheaving action
of the thoracic muscles continues until the body drops
to the ground, leaving the nymphal skin clinging to the
leaf; the antennas lie on each side of the face, and are
thus drawn out. from under the body; the wings come
straight out of the pads, narrow and much wrinkled.
They are about five-eighths of an inch long when the
insect falls to the ground. The insect now is pale, al-
most colorless. Inside of an hour, depending upon the
weather and time of day, the wings attain their full
length, one inch to one and one-quarter inches, and the
characteristic colors appear. The legs are not brought
into use in discarding this skin. Frequently the claws
of the old skeleton break away from their attachment,
and the insect falls to the ground. This in no way
interferes with the transformation. The insect, when
free from the old covering, though its limbs are quite
soft and unable to maintain its weight well, crawls to

Till'; CYCLE OF LIFE

some secluded place, where it awaits the hardening- of
the body-wall and the expansion of the wings. Before
this is fully completed the insect again begins eating.

The morning hours are the best times for you to look
for this change, though frequently it occurs in the late
afternoon. If in your rambles you observe a nymph
which does not jump away when you come near it, and
which does not sit, erect but is rather drooping, watch
it and you will very likely be rewarded by seeing this
interesting change.

FIG. 5. Nymph of IHelanoplus,
first stage. After Emerton.

FIG. 6. Nymph of Slelanojrtus,
second stage. After Emerton.

FIG. 7. Nymph of Melanoplus,
third stage. After Emerton.

FIG. 8. Nymph of Melanoplus,
fourth stage. After Emerton.

FIG. 9. Nymph of Melanoplus,
fifth stage. After Emerton.

FIG. 10. Melanoplus adult.

This grasshopper of which we are speaking has a
variety of tastes and seems to know where to find good

8 ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

things, but if these are not at hand it will satisfy itself
with such fare as can be procured. For instance, it
wisely climbs up a tree and eats the fruit before disturb-
ing the leaves of the tree. If fruit or cereals or garden
vegetables are not at hand, it can make a very good
meal upon sunflowers. These grasshoppers, like many
other insects, are creatures of habit, and their days are
spent generally in about the following way: Before sun-
rise the nymphs and adults begin to climb to the tops of
weeds or fence-posts, and remain there till about ten
o'clock. If the article upon which they rest is edible,
they amuse themselves by nibbling away. About ten
o'clock in the morning they descend, and feed lower
down. During the middle of the day they hop about,
generally moving in some one direction. The instinct
of fear is not wanting even among grasshoppers, and
the smaller ones always give place upon the approach
of the older ones. About three o'clock in the afternoon
these insects take some elevation, much the same as they
do in the morning, to remain until sundown and some-
times even throughout the night. Grasshoppers are
strongly influenced by the weather. On cool and
cloudy days they are sluggish and inactive; on warm
and sultry days they live an active life.

Thus they spend the time until the fall of the year.
Then the females deposit their eggs, which are to con-
tinue the species. It is not difficult during September
and October to observe the females ovipositing. When
they have begun, they are not easily disturbed. A fe-
male in quest of a suitable position for placing the eggs
generally moves slowly about for some time, testing the
ground over which she passes. During this time the tip

T II 10 CYCLE OF LIFE

9

of the abdomen is turned downward, and, stopping' mo-
mentarily, the ovipositors (Fig. 1!)S, o) are applied to
the ground. Some, however, begin to dig and complete
the work where the first attempt is made. Small ele-
vated spots on the surface, appear to he much chosen.
Frequently these little hillocks arc not noticeable until
marked by a locust digging into the crest. From
Figure 12, //, //, y", it is evident that for oviposition
the same place is sometimes chosen by several grass-
hoppers. Sandy soil, when present, seems preferable.

FIG. 11. Vertical section of ground, showing two egg-pods of yellow grasshop-
per in position in ground at right; female yellow grasshopper digging holo in
which to place her eggs ; longitudinal section of egg-pod at left, showing position
of eggs iu pod. Drawn from life.

A suitable place chosen, the locust forces a hole in
the ground by means of the two pairs of horny-tippet 1
ovipositors at the end of the abdomen. These are
opened and closed and the full weight of the bodv is
brought to bear on them. In this way a reeepfaele is
made for the eggs/ of ten in extremely firm ground.

Pctf/e W,

FIG. 12.

THE CYCLE OF LIFE 11

Description of Fig. 12.

Egg-pods of Melanophis differentiah's taken from a sandy soil,
showing variations in shape, a, pod with top broken off ; b and
b' ', pods made of sand with larger grains of sand or stone adher-
ing ; c, small portion of outside shell broken off ; d, specimens
made of sand and dirt with stones or clods of dirt firmly fixed to
the side ; e, specimens broken off near the top ; F, shows an
unfinished pod the grasshopper was disturbed while deposit-
ing eggs, and the pod was taken in this unfinished state ; g and
g', specimens taken, showing two pods firmly fixed to each
other, composed of sand ; g", four pods of sand and dirt, with
small stick and dead rootlets adhering ; Fr, cross-section of
top of pod, showing honeycomb structure made by the seba-
ceous fluid when dry.

12 ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

Each egg is preceded by a light-colored mucous fluid.
Part of this fluid passes through the walls of the cavity
and causes surrounding particles of dirt, sand, and in
some cases small clods (see Figure 12, c/) to adhere;
so that the pods when removed from the ground
are protected first by a coat of this sticky substance
and then by an outer layer composed of particles of
surrounding earth. This forms a brittle crust which,
when pressed, often scales off, as shown by Fig. 12, c.
If the ground is firm, the walls of the pod are generally
broken away when the earth is disturbed, thus expos-
ing the naked eggs.

This substance before hardening is quite plastic;
after hardening it is somewhat fragile. It is insoluble
in water, and thus protects the eggs from rain or snow.
When the eggs are all deposited the female covers them
with a small amount of this sebaceous fluid. This
hardens into a honevcomb structure, as shown in cross-

J

section of top of pod, Fr in Fig. 12. The cross-line
near top of pod, at // in Fig. 12, shows depth, of
covering. The whole pod is finished about one-quarter
inch below the surface of the ground, and the ground
covered over, leaving no trace of work, as shown on
ground surface in Fig. 11. The arrangement of eggs
is shown in the longitudinal section of the pod in the
foreground of Fig. 11. The number of eggs in a pod
is about 100.

Eggs placed in the ground at this late season, the
fall of the year, will not receive heat enough to hatch,
so that the species passes through the rigorous period
of winter in the ea'g sta^e. During the first warm

TIIK CYCLE OF LIFE

13

month of spring the eggs hatch, and the cycle of grass-
hopper life begins to repeat itself.

The Butterfly.- -Butterflies arc and have been fertile
subjects for the writer's pen and the artist's brush.
The velvet-winged butterfly is a symbol of the light, the
careless, the free, and the beautiful. Let, us see whether
" it toils not, neither does it spin " can be said truly,
of the butterfly. For study let us take a general favor-
ite, the black swallowtail. 1 The female butterfly seeks
her nourishment from the apple and thistle blossoms,
but when the time has come for egg-laying she sails to
some neglected corner in the garden, or shady, unfre-
quented dell where the wild parsnip 2 or the wild celery 3
grows, or some other plant of this family. 4

It was during the first days of June we
watched her. She placed her pale yellow
eggs singly on the small flower-stems of the
cluster.

These globular eggs are about one-
twenty-fifth of an inch in diameter, and
soon become brownish gray, soft and '
moist. Such conditions indicate that swaiiowtaii on

. flower-stem of

hatching is about to occur, (bee trontis- wad parsnip,
piece.) At this time, with the aid of a Enlarged '
hand-lens, motion may sometimes be perceived inside
of the semi-transparent shell. A little black point ap-
pears through the shell: it is the tiny mandibles eating
their wav, making a round hole sufficiently large for

(/ 7 O /

the little dark caterpillar, wriggling and twisting, to
escape.

1 Papilio polyxenes Fabr. tPeucedanwnffKniculaceum.

-Pastinaca saliva L. * L'mbelliferce,

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

FIG. 14. Newly hatched cater-
pillar of the black swallowtail
on flower-stern of wild parsley.
Enlarged.

When first this larva measures itself upon the flower-
stalk it is three-twenty-fifths of an inch long, three

times the diameter of the egg
from which it came. After
stretching itself and resting a
moment it turns around and
makes its first meal off its
shell, not prompted so much
by hunger as by the protective
instinct which leads it to en-
deavor to remove all traces
likely to lead to its discovery
by an enemy.

As it stretches itself out again, study it under the
hand-lens. It has the normal number of segments,
twelve besides
the head. Each
segment has six
p r o t u b erances,
and from each of
these in turn
grow five or six
hairs, making in all a rather bristling little crea-
ture. The first three segments of the body, known as
the thorax, have true jointed legs, each with a horny
claw for grasping the supporting twig; the sixth, sev-
enth, eighth, ninth and twelfth have each a pair of
soft unjointed legs, or pads known as prolegs, aids
in locomotion and in maintaining position " when the
Avind blows."

Its purposes, intuitions and instincts have been
placed in verse.

FIG. 15. Diagram showing normal number of seg-
ments in a caterpillar.

TI1K CYCLE OF

15

Born, bred, with just one instinct, that of growth :

Her quality was, caterpillar-like,

To ail-unerringly select a leaf

And without intermission feed her fill,

Become the Painted Peacock, or belike

The Brimstone-wing, when time of year should suit ;

And 'tis a sign (say entomologists)

Of sickness, when the creature stops its meal

One minute, either to look up at heaven,

Or turn aside for change of aliment.

Broivnuu/ " Red Cotton Night-Cap Country."

FIG. 16. Caterpillars of black swallowtail feeding on wild celery.
Photographed from life.

During the first five or six days of its existence this
caterpillar becomes three-fourths of an inch long, black
or very dark brown, excepting a white band around the
sixth and seventh segments. It now prefers the tender
flowers, eating all the parts but the yellow petals, which
drop off untouched. (See frontispiece.)

Throughout the caterpillar's growth at certain periods
an interesting process occurs. It sheds the cuticular
skin, an action frequently called molting. This gen-
erally takes place during the early morning hours.

16

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

For a long time the larva rests quietly, and the skin
becomes like an old garment. Undulatory movements
of the body headward, slow at first, then increasing,
crack the skin around the neck; the caterpillar, pulling
itself forward, pushing the skin backward, throbs and
pulsates until the skin crumples up unbroken at the
end of the body. The head is thrashed about from side
to side, occasionally rubbing and striking the stalk,
until the hood is discarded. From ten to fifteen min-
utes of its lifetime arc required for each change in

FIG. 17. Caterpillars of black swallowtail about to molt.
Photographed from life.

clothing. The caterpillar, with its new, whitish, almost
colorless coat, rears up its head, remains nearly motion-
less for about an hour. This is time sufficient for the
characteristic colors to develop and for recuperation.
Prompted by the same instinct which caused it to con-
ceal its shell-house, its first act now is to turn around
and devour the old covering. The fasting, the exertion
in eating the skin, every act of the whole performance
tends to sharpen the appetite. It eats voraciously, not
the tender flowers as before, but the seed-pods and large

THE CYCLE OF LIFE

17

by the fi nger. Photographed
from life>

stems and leaves. This caterpillar no longer requires
a milk diet.

Its horns, present from birth,
are now even more noticeable
and their use is more readily
discerned. For, when disturbed
by any object other than one
of its mates, the caterpillar pro-
jects its soft, fleshy, orango-
yellow horns from behind the
head. The position of the
horns, their formidable appear-

FIG. 18. Caterpillar of black

ance, and the act Of protrild- swallowtail protruding horns

(osmateria) upon being touched

ing them, all tend to frighten

away approaching foes. There

still remains, as a last and most effective means

of defense, a repulsive odor arising from these horns,

sensible ten or twelve feet away. This offensive odor

saves many a caterpillar from the destructive beaks of

insectivorous birds.

Sociability is not one of the characteristics of this
immature butterfly. If one caterpillar encroaches upon
the other's territory, violent displeasure is manifested
by the dashing of the head from side to side. Never at
such times are the horns protruded, nor is the offensive
odor emitted. Why?

At about three weeks of age the larva has grown until
it is about as many inches in length, has changed its
skin five or six times, has discarded the tubercles and
spines so prominent in the young thing just out of the

egg. It is ready to become a chrysalis, a pupa, an in-

2

18

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

active form before which we may stand, and, like
Tennyson to the flower, say:

"If I could understand
What you are, root and all, and all in all,
I should know what God and man is."

This interesting caterpillar, thus
far content to remain upon the plant
where its parent placed it, now grows
restless, leaves the seed-pods, descends
the flower-stalk, sometimes forsakes
t lie plant entirely. In any case it
choses some secluded spot on a lower
hranch of its food plant, the dead
limh of an adjoining tree, or a neigh-
boring fence-hoard, as a place for its
subsequent transformations. In the
vivarium they adapt themselves to
the circumstances. One we watched
chose the wire screen of a breeding-
cage, another the handle of a silver
cnp which held the food plant. In
nature, however, these caterpillars
seem to show a decided preference for
slanting objects when selecting a loca-
tion for pupation.

The changes undergone by a cater-
pillar in passing from the larval to
the pupal stage have always excited
much interest and elicited the closest
attention of the observer. Words
to portray the transition. It must

FIG. 19. Position of
caterpillar of black
swallowtail just before
pupation. Slightly en-
larged. Photographed
from life.

are inadequate

THE CYCLE OF LIFE 19

be seen to be appreciated. The caterpillar begins
to spin from its mouth fine white silken fibers,
not unlike a spider's thread. The fore feet are
brought into use a little in drawing ont the thread to
the proper length. A cushion about two-twenty-fifths
of an inch in diameter is constructed of this material.
Strengthening threads are woven over and about this
pad, making it doubly secure in its position. To this
cushion the bodv is firmlv fastened by means of the last

t/ / </

pair of prolegs. The caterpillar frequently tries its
" hold " before fixing itself. Should the silken founda-
tion not feel firm enough for the responsibility about
to be imposed, the larva releases its grip, turns around
and reinforces the cushion with additional fibers.

A firm hold is then taken with the anal prolegs; the
caterpillar rests head upward, with the body slightly
contracted. After a moment it turns the head and
thorax to one side as far as possible, fastens a thread of
silk to the supporting object ; then, bending the head
backward at almost right angles to the body, it carries
the thread slowly by short jerks to the opposite side,
fastens it securely, and brings back another thread in
the same manner to the starting-place. This is repeated
until fourteen or fifteen threads form a loop in front of
the head. Into this the head and five segments of the
body are thrust, allowing the band to slip into the
groove between the fifth and sixth segments. The body
now hangs head uppermost in the silken loop, with the
caudal extremity clinging to the silken pad. The caudal
extremity is the only part of the body in contact with
the support. The caterpillar grows shorter, the seg-
ments appear swollen, the head curls forward. In this

20

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

FIG. 21. The de-
veloping chrysalis
of the black swal-
lowtail. Discarded
larval skin, mue^i
wrinkled, still on
FIG. 20. Caterpillar of black swallowtail about lower part of body.

to shed the last larval skin. Enlarged to show Photographed from

"cushion" and "silken loop." Photographed

from life.

state the insect remains suspended for from nineteen
to thirty hours.

At the end of this resting period the whole body
begins to contract, expand, and twitch; the skin has
become thin, old, and almost imperceptibly begins to
move backward, gathering in tiny folds ; it breaks on
the back along the median line of the thorax. The body
movements increase, the central portion elongates, the
thorax rests back heavily npon the silken loop. The
whole covering, the feet, the head, all appendages are
discarded from the posterior end, which is loosened
momentarily for the purpose. The caudal end is again

THE CYCLE OF LIFE

21

thrust into the silken cushion,, and there before our
eyes the characteristic colors of the chrysalis appear,
at first green, in some cases remaining so throughout
pupation, in others turn-
ing a protective wood-
brown with a dash of
frosty-white here and
there.

This June generation
has all experienced the
wonderful transition be-
fore the month's end.
Each is encased in a
hard brown shell, a cov-
ering admirably adapted
for the changes which
occur during this quies-
cent period. This shell
is protected at every
point of probable contact
by callous projections.
Capable of no external
million, the pupa lies in a trance, as it were, for from
ten to twenty days, according to the character of the
weather, warm weather favoring growth.

/ r^ o

When it is known, however, that the being enters
this tenement as a caterpillar and conies forth by-and-by
a bright butterfly, it is evident that great activity has
existed within this shell. The hour when we are to
see the butterfly is foretold by a duller color, the line
markings become less distinct, the shell appears to be-

FIG. '22. Brown pupa-case or chrysalis
of black swallowtail. Enlarged. Photo-
graphed from life.

22

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

come moist; then the case gives way along the back,
owing to the muscular contractions within, opening a
way for the appearance of the black head and legs.
Slowly and cautiously the legs become effective, and in a
moment's time the smooth inner walls have permitted
the escape of the delicate creature ; cautiously it climbs
over the old shell to the supporting twig, there to await
the sun's strengthening action upon its four wrinkled,
folded and limp wings. The body strengthens, the
wings expand, the colors stand out, the life and courage
increase, and it takes its initial flight. (Frontispiece.)

" Butterfly, good-by to your shell,
And bright wings speed you well."

This butterfly, in the form in
which we have thus far studied it,
had, during its caterpillar stage,
a mouth with jaw r s fitted for mas-
ticating vegetable food. During
this eating period sufficient nour-
ishment was stored for pupation.
Now this same individual, in adult
form, a butterfly, no longer has the
means nor the power for biting off
bits of plant leaves. The butterfly,
then, must obtain its food in an-
other form. This it finds in the
nectar of flowers. To enable it to
reach the nectaries within the blos-
som, the butterfly is equipped with
a long sucking-tube or proboscis. You will not readily
perceive this when you first capture the butterfly, since,

FIG. 23. Empty pupa-case
of black swallowtail, show-
Ing characteristic opening
through which butterfly
emerged.

TIIK CYCLE OF LIFK 23

while not in use, this tube is tightly mi led up in front of
the head. The length of this sucking-tube in the black
swallowtail is about three-quarters of an inch. With
insect in hand, a careful examination of its parts will
no doubt, reveal the position and extension of this butter-
fly's mouth. As you might-suppose, then, the swallow-
tail is a frequent visitor to the blossoms of flowers.
It is fond of the nectar secreted by the thistle and
apple, and has been known to visit the verbena blossoms
to such an extent that flowers could not be obtained,
since the butterflies in withdrawing their tongues pulled
the flowers all to pieces.

They are low flyers, and when not disturbed wend
their way back and forth about the meadows and pas-
tures. If alarmed, however, they greatly increase their
speed, darting here and there in a zigzag course. Self-
preservation is no less manifest in this delicate form
than in those animals of greater size and longer dura-
tion of life.

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

Six egg-shells from which young cecropias have hatched. The young cecropia
emerging from the seventh. Photographed from life. ( Enlarged.)

Young cecropia, first stage. Color, black.
(Enlarged.) Photographed from life by M. V.
Slingerland.

Young cecropia, second stage. (Enlarged.)
Color, ebscure yellow. Photographed from
life by M. V. Slingerland.

THE LIFE OF A. MOTH (Samia cecropia).

THE CYCLE OF LIFE

25

Young cecropia, third stage. (Enlarged.) Pho-
tographed from life by M. V. Slingerland.

Cecropia molting the fourth and
last time natural size. Photo-
graphed from life by M. V. Sling-
erland.

THE LIFE OF A MOTH (Samia cecropia). CONTINUED.

26

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

Cecropias after fourth molt natural size. Photographed from life by
M. V. Sllngerland.

THE LIFE OF A MOTH (Samia cecropia). CONTINUED.

THE CYCLE OF LIFE

27

Cecropia, full grown natural size. Color, dull green. Tubercles, blue
on sides, yellow on back. The four large tubercles near head are reddish.
Photographed from life by M. V. Slingerland.

THE LIFE OF A MOTH (Samia cecropia). CONTINUED.

28

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

Cecropia spinning Its cocoon natural size. Photographed from life by
M. V, Sllngerland.

THE LIFE OF A MOTH (Samia cecropia). CONTINUED.

TIIH CYCLE OF LIFE

Cocoon of cecropia. Photographed from life.

Chrysalis of cecropia taken out of
cocoon. Photographed from life.

Empty chrysalis from which ce-
cropia moth has emerged. Both
natural size.

THE LIFE OF A MOTH (Samia cecropia). CONTINUED.

Four stages In the emergence of cecropia from the cocoon.
Photographed from life.

9

THE LIFE OF A MOTH (Samia cecrovia). CONTINUED.

THE CYCLE OF LIFE

31

Cecropia just out of the cocoon. Photographed from life. * 3 .

Back and side views of cecropia a few minutes after emergence, showing the limp,
moist wings beginning to develop. Photographed from life. %.

THE LIFE OF A MOTH (Samia cecropia). CONTINUED.

Cecropia inoth about naif hour after emergence, wings almost fully Developed,
but still limp. Photographed from life. %.

Group of newly hatched cccropia moths in characteristic positions during the
development of the wings, pg.

THE LIFE OF A MOTH (Samia cecropia). CONTINUED

THE CYCLE OF LIFE

'

Adult cecropia moth (female).

THE LIFE OF A MOTH (Samia cecropia). -CONCLUDED

34 ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

CHAPTER II
THE SPECIAL SENSES

Value of Sense Organs. --In animal life there arises
with the development of the nervous system, the need
of transmission of impressions from certain nerve cen-
ters to the muscles. This need is fulfilled by the means
of motor nerves. External impressions are to be con-
veyed inwardly, to special nerve centers. This function
is performed by the sensory nerves. In the simplest
forms of life, such as the Amoeba, the body of which
is composed of but a single cell, special sensory organs
are wanting. The outer part or surface is a general
sensory organ. While the sensory phenomena of these
primitive forms are not well known, it has been ascer-
tained that they are sensitive to external stimuli, such
as electricity, contact with other bodies, heat, and the
actions of certain chemicals. Many are sensitive to
light. As the scale of life advances, and animals be-
come more complex, the sensory areas become more
localized, and their functions more varied. When
sensory nerves become grouped in one locality or organ
of the body, for a special purpose, we call that location
or organ, with its nerves, a sense organ. With this
localization there comes also an increase in the power

THE SPECIAL SENSES 35

of the sensibilities. In insect life we find the sense of
touch, the sense of sight, the sense of taste, the sense of
smell, and the sense of hearing.

The Study of the Special Senses. Our impressions of
the character of the world around ns are based upon
experiences gained through organs of special sense. We
are acquainted with only those things which influence
our senses, and so, in speaking of special senses, we are
wont to consider them from our own standpoint. There-
fore our study of the senses of those forms of life which
cannot communicate their impressions directly to us,
must be carried on by comparison with our own impres-
sions. In ourselves, we are aware of five senses, namely :
smell, touch, taste, hearing, and sight. In our classifi-
es lion of the senses of lower animals, we classify the
senses of these animals accordingly as the actions of
these senses compare with the physiological functions
of our own. It is possible that other forms of life have-
other senses, but it is somewhat difficult for us to com-
prehend clearly the character of a sense which we our-
selves lack. Dissections of special sense organs do not
always give conclusive evidence as to the significance
of the sense organs. For instance, it would be hard
to tell, by cutting to pieces, whether a certain organ was
used for tasting or smelling, or for either. Our conclu-
sions are frequently based upon observations made upon
the actions of certain special sense organs. Our present
knowledge, then, of special sense organs 1ms been gained
by experiments with living Wins, and by anatomical
investigations.

36 ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

The Sense of Touch. - If the soft surface of the tips of
the palpi (labial and maxillary) of the grasshopper's
mouth (Fig. 195, e, g] he examined under the compound
microscope., little peg-like structures will he observed.
These are connected with nerves which transmit sen-
sations of contact, or touch. These organs derive their
names from this function. While this sense is localized
chiefly in the palpi, it is not confined to them alone.
The antenna 1 also serve as tactile organs, but in a varia-
ble degree according to their forms, their development,
and the habits of the species. Species of beetles with-
out eyes find their way about by means of these an-
tennae. Our familiar long-horned beetles grope their
way among the branches of trees, using their long an-
tenna' for the purpose. Insects with long, filiform,
many-jointed antenna 1 use them as feelers. Insects
with short, stiff antenna 1 , with few joints, evidently
do not use them as feelers, and so do not have the
tactile sense of the antenna 1 developed in such a high
degree. In many insects the extremities of the limbs
also have nerve cells which convey impressions of touch.
The membrane underlying the chitinous covering of
insects is sensitive to touch, so that nearly every por-
tion of the insect's body perceives contact with foreign
bodies.

The Sense of Taste. The sense of taste has to do with
the determination of the character of matter presented
as food, and so the organs of taste naturally lie in the
vicinity of the mouth. Of the nerves of taste, some are
to be found on the palpi of the mouth, situated with the
tactile nerve cells, and others on the membranes of the
mouth. This sense is verv eloselv connected with the

THE SPECIAL SENSES

37

sense of smell. These organs of taste are minute pits,
hairs, or short peg-like structures which form the end
of the gustatory nerves, and are most numerous on the
membranes within the mouth. They are situated at a
point where the food must necessarily touch them as
it enters the mouth and passes down the throat.

The sense of taste is highly developed in bees. Ob-
servations upon the readiness with which bees use this
sense can be made by placing on a large platter, accessi-
ble to bees, plain honey and honey mixed with sub-
stances likely to be unpleasant to bees. Ants have
been drawn to honey in which there was morphine and
strychnine. The smell of the honey attracted them,
but the moment the honey touched their lips they ceased
eating it. Xeither in the antenna' nor anywhere out-
side of the month was there any organ which informed
them of the unpleasant substances within the honey.
An interesting experiment performed with wasps, was
as follows: sugar was fed to them from day to day
at a certain place, until they became accustomed to
coming to that place for the sugar; powdered alum was
substituted for the sugar. They had scarcely touched
it when they drew back with most comical gestures,
(leaning their tongues by frequently running them in
and out and stroking them with their fore feet.

The Sense of Smell.- -The antenna- perform dual func-
tions. It has been shown in discussing the sense of
touch, that the antenna 1 are tactile organs. The an-
tenna;- may be regarded also as the principal organs of
smell. The nerve endings are similar to those of the
nerves of touch, being pits or papilla?. The sense of
smell is highly developed among insects. It is con-

38

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

stantly used. By the sense of smell, insects are enabled
to discover food, to recognize their friends, avoid their
enemies, and to seek their mates.

These various uses have been confirmed repeatedly by
experiments. ( 'ertain carrion-eating beetles inclosed in
a large box invariably sought out a small bit of decay-
ing flesh within a bottle located in one corner. When
the antenna 1 were covered with wax, so that the olfactory
nerves were no longer sensible, the beetles no longer
found the meat. Flies were attracted into a room by
a piece of decaying meat. It seemed impossible to
drive them away from the meat. These same flies paid
no attention to the meat after they had been caught and
their antennse rendered insensible. The actions of the
insects in other respects seemed normal, so that their
indifference toward the meats could not be charged to
any discomfiture from the temporarily insensible an-
tenmr. Closely constructed boxes in which were in-
closed certain species of female moths have attracted
the males of this same species. The males of such

FIG. 24. Heads of (a) male and (b) female Cecropia moths. Photographed on
same scale, illustrating the greater development of antennce in male moth. X 2.

THE SPECIAL SEXSKS

39

species have boon known to appear at the windows of
rooms in which the females wore in captivity. Xow in
these moths the antenna 1 of the males are hiirhlv (level-

o t>

oped. It seems undoubtedly to be the case that since
the males could not see the females, they discerned them
through the sense of smell. And this is further evi-
denced by the antenna 1 , the seat of smell, being' more
fully developed in the males than in the females.

In the growth and development of insects, we have
found that at different stages the strnctnrc of the insect
and the food habits are different. The butterfly has a
long very lender tube through which it secures its
liquid nourishment. It has no jaws with which to mas-
ticate the leaves of plain-. The caterpillar which
hatches from the egg of this very butterfly has jaws
with which to eat. It has also specially formed tastes
for certain plant tissues. If the eggs arc deposited in
places remote from the proper food plants the young
caterpillars will starve, since they have no "taste" for
oilier plants and will not cat them. The parent, then,
must be able to recognize the proper food plants upon
which or near which to deposit her eggs. Her sight, as
we shall see presently, is imperfect, and does not clearly
recognize the various forms in plants. She cannot
taste the plant leaves, and in many eases there are no
nectar-bearing blossoms to aid her. Plants give off
characteristic odors, and it is upon these she evidently
depends for the recognition of the plants furnishing
proper nourishment for her young.

The Production of Odors. Many caterpillars emit offen-
sive odors. (See pp. 16, 17.) Certain insects, such as
the well known "stink-bugs" (Fig. 45), give off, when

4-0 ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

disturbed, disagreeable scents. These are given off for
the purpose of protecting themselves by repelling inimi-
cal insects, and more especially other enemies, such as
birds. There are, however, odors given off by insects,
evidently intended solely for the benefit of other in-
sects ; that is, to render themselves by the possession
of this odor attractive to other insects. Many of these
odors are perceptible to us. Our monarch butterfly 1
(Fig. -iSa), emits a slightly honeyed odor; the small
blue butterfly, 2 common in spring, has an odor resem-
bling crushed violet stems. Tin- white butterfly 3 gives
off a faint odor of syringa blossoms. These instances
with many others show that many butterflies emit odors,
apparently in most cases agreeable to us. These odors
are emitted through minute canals found in very small
scales of the butterfly wing. These scales are called
scent scales. As far as our sense can perceive, some
insects with well-developed scent scales emit no odors.
It is evident, then, that the odors which they emit are
beyond our perception, and that to such insects we
must attribute an exceedingly delicate sense of smell.
This statement is not difficult to accept, when, as be-
fore noted, the males of many species are able to locate,
within a dwelling, entirely out of sight, females of their
own species. They do not so much "'walk by sight"
as "fly by smell."

The Sense of Sight- -The eyes of insects are of two
kinds, simple and compound. Of the simple eyes there
are generally three, situated in a triangle on the front
of the head. These eyes have but a single lens, and, it is
supposed, they are used to observe very near objects. The

l Anosia plcxippus. '- Cyaniris pseudargiolus. s Pieris oleracea.

THE SPECIAL SKXSES

41

compound eyes, situated on the sides of the head, are
composed of numerous simple eyes, which are complex
in structure. The number of simple eves in the com-
pound eye varies in different, insects. The ant has
about fifty simple eyes in its compound eye. The
compound eye of the dragon-fly (Fig. 26) contains

FIG. 25. Fragment of outer surface
(cornea) of eye of dragon-fly, much
enlarged, showing the hexagonal fac-
ets. Drawn from nature by Miss M.
E. Wise.

FIG. 26. Head of dragon-fly. En-
larged, to show well-developed com-
pound eyes forming sides and upper
part of head. From a photograph.

20,000 simple eyes. In the compound eye, the outer
surface or cornea of each simple eye is hexagonal.
These hexagonal surfaces are joined together, form-
ing a many-faceted cornea for the compound eye (Fig.
27). These eyes composing the compound eye see in-
dependently of eaeli other. Each one is aide to see but
a small part of any object before the compound eye, so
that insects see images and objects not as entire things,
but in mosaic; that is, the object viewed seems to
the insect to be composed of many small independent
parts.

Some insects do not have eyes. Those insects which
live constantly in the dark, such as those which are

ELEMENTARY STTDIKS IX INSECT LIFE

exclusively under the bark of tree-, as a certain beetle; 1
or parasitic in tbe skin of certain animals, as the spider-
like fly; 2 or live in dark caves, as the small ground
beetle; 3 or lead subterranean lives, as the small beetle 4
which dwells in ants' nests.

FIG. 27. Section through eye of fly
vomitoria), showing arrangement of nerve-end-
ings of simple eyes beneath cornea (c). (After
Hickson.)

At certain stages in growth and
development some insects find no
use for eyes. The larva 1 of flies,
commonly called maggots, being
placed by their parents upon
proper food, into which they fre-
quently burrow, need no eyes.
The same is true of Hymenop-
trrons larva\ the offspring of bees
and wasps. The larva 1 of bec-

Fiu. 28. One of the simple eyes

ties with like habits are also (ommatidiwiO from the compound

eye of the fly (Musca vomitoria).

eyeleSS. Bllt all these forms c, cornea ; pc, pseudocone ; pg'< pig-

, , ,, , . ments surrounding and separating

When they paSS from tlllS Stage each eye from theother ; R, central

,-] -\ -\, r axis of the nerve-ending semidia-

to the adult form possess eyes. grammatic . (Ater

l Ptilium. -Nycteribia. 3 Anophthalmus

THE SPECIAL SEXSES

Many larval forms, such as caterpillars and others
which move about in quest of food, possess simple eyes
in varied numbers.

Just how well and how accurately insects can see, is
still an open question. It is evident that insects can
perceive objects in motion better than at rest. Anyone
who has ever disturbed a bumblebee's home, or a hornet's
nest, knows that, though in a comparatively safe place, ;i
movement on his part is
likely to lead to his dis-
covery and bring down
the wrath of some scout-
ing bee. It is probable,
then, that the principal
use of the compound

FIG. 29. Illustrating mode of vision in a
eye IS tO perceive, not many-faceted eye. (After Lubbock.) The

the form, but the move- "f* h ente " lrough cornea - , The rays

which strike the sides of each tube or cone

ment of oblOCtS. It IS are absorbed by the black pigment which

, 11'' surrounds each tube. Accordingly, those

further believed that 111- rayg O f nght only which pass through the

sects cannot clcarlv per- ^ 8tal ne cones dire f * ^ ?**?

from their sides), such as a-a , b-b , c-c ,
CeiVC oblCCtS at a (lis- d-d', e-e', will ever affect the nerves at ',

6', c', d', e . According to Lubbock, the

tance greater than SIX larger and more convex the eye, the -wider
/ 1 ,i ,! will be the field of vision ; while the smaller

feet away, and that with andmorenumerous are the facets , the more

few exceptions, SUch as distinct will be the vision.

the dragon-fly and honey-bee, insects are guided rather
bv the sense of smell than that of siirht.

> o

The Sense of Hearing.- -The location of the auditory
organ in the grasshopper (Fig. 20:5, E, and.} is on
the side of the insect immediately back of the thorax.

/

The oystershell-shaped covering is simply a highly at-
tenuated and fully stretched portion of the body cover-

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

FIG. 30. Front leg
of cricket, showing
ear-like organ (a).

ing. This cover corresponds in its use
to the tympanum of our own car. On
the internal surface of this tympanum
there are two horn-like processes, and at-
tached to these is a very delicate little
sac filled with a transparent fluid. This
sac represents the membranous laby-
rinth, and is connected with the auditory
nerve, which goes to the brain. This
tympanal
structure

is to be found in the
common black .cricket, fa-
miliar katydid, and their
allies, on the inside of the
tibia of the front leg. The
organs of hearing have
different locations in dif-
ferent insects. It has been
demonstrated that the an-
tenna 1 of the male mosquito
vibrate to the sound-wave
of the tuning-fork. It is
quite probable that a num-
ber of other insects per-
ceive sounds through
nerves which terminate
exteriorly in the antenna 1 .
The functions of the an-
tennal nerves of insects
are varied, capable of per-
ceiving contact, odor, and

FIG. 31. Wing-covers of male katydid,
The one on left shows heavy file-like
structure on under side near base (en-
larged just above wing); the one on right
shows membranous structure near base
with pointed ridge on upper side (en-
larged just above wing), extending out-
ward. The right wing is passed under
the left wing, the sharp ridge rasps upon
the file of the left wing, the membrane
of the left wing vibrates, producing the
" song " of the katydid.

THE SPECIAL SK.\SF:S

sound. The antennas may be considered, then, to have
within them three classes of nerves: nerves of touch,
of smell, and of hearing.

Production of Sound. Insects have no true voice. We
are all familiar with the shrill cry of the cicada or
harvest-fly, the song of the katydid, and the chirp of
the cricket. These are no doubt calls to other individ-
uals of the same species. The cicada produces its pierc-
ing notes from a pair of membranes on the under side of
flic base of the abdomen of the male. The membranes
cover depressions and vibrate rapidly somewhat like
two kettle-drums. It is only the male that possesses
the-e organs. This has led some one to say in rhyme:

" Happy the cicadas' lives,
For all have voiceless wives."

The student, with the male
cicada in hand, will not have to
wait long before he is permitted
to hear and observe these sound-
producing membranes in action.
The katydid brings forth its'song
hy rubbing its fore wings upon
each other. (Fig. 31.) The
male cricket will not usually re-
main long under a glass tumbler
before he begins rubbing the base
of his upper wings on the base of
his under wings ( Fig. 32), pro-
ducing that familiar clicking
sound. Certain moths and but-

Fir,. 32. Wing-cover of male
cricket, showing sound-pro-
ducing apparatus. Each wing-
cover is equipped with our oi
these flies, r, enlarged at a,
and a scraper. When the
cricket wishes to call, he.ele-
\ates his wings so that the
scraper of each wing rasps mi
the tile of the other, when the
wings are moved sidewise.
This sets the membranous
wing-covers in vibration and
produces the characteristic
chirp of the cricket.

46

ELEMENTAEY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

terflies make crackling noises by rubbing their palpi
against the base of their long probosces. The buzz of
the honey-bee is caused by the vibration of the wings.
In Japan a number of insects, notably among them a
night cricket, are prized for the peculiar noises which
they make. They are looked upon there as we regard
canaries, and are kept in cages and cared for simply
for the pleasure derived from hearing their character-
istic sounds.

PROTECTIVE DEVICES 47

CHAPTER III

PROTECTIVE DEVICES

". ! . . . Then marked he, too,
How lizard fed on ant, and snake on him,
And kite 011 both ; and how the fish-hawk robbed
The fish-tiger of that which it had seized ;
The shrike chasing the bulbul, which did hunt
The jeweled butterflies ; till everywhere
Each slew a slayer and in turn was slain,
Life living upon death. So the fair show
Veiled on vast, savage, grim conspiracy
Of mutual murder, from the worm to man,
Who himself kills his fellow."- .!

IN this life, among 1 us ;m<l about us, animals
and plants as well as men bring to their aid every
means which will in anv wav secure advantages to

i/ / O

themselves and their posteritv. Man lias inanv cuiminc;

1 *j tj iT

devices; ferocious wild animals have strength and
prowess; yet both of these show due respect for the
defensive weapons of the hee and the wasp. Bees have
stings, beetles have guns. More successful in escaping
the many predatory enemies of insects, however, are
those that hy imitation or simulation succeed in appear
ing not what they are but what they seem.

Means of protection are evident in every stage of
insect life: the egg, the larva, the pupa and the adult
frequently possess marked tendencies for shielding
themselves from harm by reason of some peculiar trait
or characteristic.

The Egg's Defense.-- in the case of the egg, too fre-
quently members of its own generation are its wors\

48

ELEMENTARY STUDIKS IX TNSKCT 1. 1 II.

enemies. The lacewinged fly [ finds her offspring fond
of their uhhatched brethren; so the mother insect pro-

FIG. 33. Lace-winged fly and eggs, showing means of protection used by
mother in placing eggs on stiff stalks of hard silk about one-half inch high.

vides a defense for her young still in the helpless stage
hy placing each egg upon a pedicel (Fig 33). Now
as each egg hatches, the young one drops down upon the

FIG. 34. Ventral
view of insect (Orthc-
ziu graminis) without
egg-mass attached.

Fi<;. 35. Dorsal view
same insect with long
fluted covering over
egg-mass attached to
body. A protection for
the eggs.

leaf or supporting surface beneath, and his brothers
still remain high out of reach of this young bit of active
life with an appetite to satisfy.

l Chrysopa sp.

PEOTECTIVK DEVICES

FIG. 37. Larva of caddis-fly in case of sticks con-
structed by itself as protection against its enemies.
When disturbed, it draws itself up within the house
of sticks, mud and pebbles.

FIG. 36. Elder cane, showing
top view of holes drilled by tree-
cricket, a protective receptacle
for her eggs. At left, part of
cane split to show eggs In posi-
tion.

FIG. 38. Larva of Interrogation butterfly (Grapta interrogationis) about to pu-
pate, showing protective many-barbed spines. From a photograph. Enlarged.

4

50

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

The Larvae resort to many means to escape enemies.
Some emit, noxious juices, some " play 'possum/' some
assume an attitude of fierceness, and others simulate
objects not subject to attack.

The Pupa frequently secures protection by assuming
on the pupa-case colors closely resembling 1 the support,
or by taking the form of some object associated with it.

FIG. 39. Pupa of interrogation
butterfly, showing protective knots
or processes at exposed points lia-
ble to contact with other bodies.
From a photograph. Enlarged.

FIG. 40. Dorsal view of the
pupa of black swallowtail but-
terfly on white saucer, showing
protective resemblance. Photo-
graphed from life.

The nascent pupa-skin in some insects appears to have
the capacity to assume within certain limits the colors
of its support. (See Figs. 40, 42, 426.)

The Adult. Did you ever observe a moderate-sized
black or bluish beetle running away from under a
stone or board you may have overturned ? Have you

PROTECTIVE DEVICES 51

FIG. 41. Pupa of interrogation butterfly on upper part of under side of branch,
protected by its resemblance to a fragment of leaf below it. After photograph by
V. L. Kellogg.

ever collected such, and while handling it heard now
and then a peculiar popping sound ? These are the bom-
bardier beetles. (See Fig. 43.) You will soon learn to
know them by their bluish, blackish, or greenish bodies,
with head, prothorax and legs yellowish or reddish yel-
low. These beetles have at the hind end of the body little
sacs in which they secrete a volatile fluid ; so, when one
of these bombardier beetles is about to be overtaken by a
pursuing enemy, a sudden pop, and he surprises his
would-be captor with a report not unlike that of a little
popgun, and then bewilders him with a load of smoky
gas fired into his face. During this momentary be-
wilderment of his adversary, the bombardier beetle
makes good his escape.

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

FIG. 42. Two pupa-cases of black swallowtail butterfly. The one on left has
attached itself to white stick, the one on right to black stick, showing adaptation of
color of pupa-case to its surroundings. About three-fourths natural size. Photo-
graphed from life.

There are but few of us who have not at some time
experienced the sting of a bee or a wasp. Among bees
this weapon is brought into use, not alone as protection
against intruders, such as man, but is much used against
the unwelcome visitors of its own tribe. Had not nature
equipped the bee with such means of defense, this val-
uable insect, on account of the attraction the honey
presents to man and other animals, would years ago
have succumbed to the attacks of those seeking its
precious stores.

PROTECTIVE DEVICES

53

The formic acid and the other toxic elements pmbably
present in the fluid ejected from the glands of the body
of the attacking bee, while discomfiting to us, are quite
deadly to the bees. This poisonous fluid can be secret r. I
from the blood-cells of the bees, but when it is injected

FIG. 426. Pupa-case of black swallowtail butterfly on white saucer, side view,
showing protective resemblance in coloration of the pupa-case to the white saucer.
Natural size. Photographed from life.

FIG. 43. The bombardier beetle (Brachynus
americanus). Enlarged three times.

In, .44. The "stink-bug"
(Podisus spinosus). Ren-
dered distasteful to birds
by its ability to give off an
offensive odor. Enlarged
about two and one-lui'f
times.

04 ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

into the tissues, by means of another's sting, death
follows. When the honey-bee stings the human flesh
the sting generally remains, and the bee, if not killed
before, dies on account of the wound caused by the
tearing away of the organs connected with the sting.
This sting, then, is not so much for the protection of
the individual as for the defense of the home and its

FIG. 45. "Bags" of the bag-worm moth larva, made of closely woven web
covered by bits of sticks. The larva weaves the "bag" as it travels, for protec-
tion. The male emerges as a moth. The female spends her life as a grub-like
form in her "bag."

sacred treasures ; true patriots, these bees. Not so
with the wasps and hornets : they sting repeatedly
without endangering their own lives.

" The sting is composed of two spears of a polished,
chestnut-colored horny substance, which, supported by
the sheath, make a very sharp weapon. In the act of
stinging, the spears emerge from the sheath, about two-
thirds of their length. Between them and on each
side of them is a small groove, through which the liquid,
coming from the poison-sack, is ejected into the wound.

" Each spear of the sting has about nine barbs, which

PROTECTIVE DEVICES

55

are turned back like those of a fishhook, and prevent
the sting from being easily withdrawn. When the in-
sect is prepared -to sting, one of these spears, having a
little longer point than the other, first darts into the
flesh, and being fixed by its foremost barb, the other
strikes in also, and they alternately penetrate deeper

Fio. 46. The sting of the worker bee, and its appendages. (Enlarged, from
Glrard.) a, sting ; 6, poison sac; c c, poison glands ; d d, secreting bags.

and deeper, till they acquire a firm hold of the flesh
with their barbed hooks. Meanwhile, the poison is
forced to the end of the spears, by miu-h the same process
which carries the venom from the tooth of a viper when
it bites." (GIKAKD.)

56

ELEMEXTARY STUDIES IX IXSECT 'LIFE

The muscles, though invisible to the eye, are yet
strong enough to force the sting, to the depth of one-
twelfth of an inch, through the thick skin of a man's
hand.

>

FIG. 47. A walking-stick, protected by its re-
semblance to its surroundings.

FIG. 48. Leaf butterfly (Kal-
lima paralecta) on left, showing
protective resemblance to leaf
on right. (After Wallace.)

Sympathetic Coloration. So far we have spoken only
of active means brought into use hy insects in pro-
tecting themselves. Did yon ever notice that the grass-
hoppers which live along the roadway and those living

PROTECTIVE DEVICES

57

almost exclusively upon the sandy and dusty ground,
are dust-colored, while other grasshoppers, that live in
the grass exclusively, are of a greenish color? Not
only are they greenish in color, hut in the case of a
certain green grasshopper which spends much of its
time upon the lamb's-quarter, there are marks of red
corresponding to the red markings upon the green
lamb's-quarter, showing further resemblance to sur-
roundings. These colors have not been assumed as a

O

matter of choice by the insects, just as we choose the
colors of the clothing we wear, but have arisen through
slow and gradual development. Is it not evident that
the green grasshoppers upon the dusty road would be
very conspicuous objects for birds and other enemies ?
If perchance a few should he somewhat gray or dusty
in color they would be more likely to escape the notice
of enemies, and naturally would tend to reproduce others
of like color. Thus the matter of color not only becomes
firmly fixed but most decidedly pronounced. And the
same might be said about the dust-colored insects among
the green grass.

"The world is made up,'" says Scudder, "of eaters
and eaten, of devices to catch and devices to avoid being
caught." So, whenever we find very large numbers of
one species of insect life prevalent we will do well to
look about to see if we can ascertain what trait of char-
acter or propitious conditions have furnished this group
sufficient protection to enable the individuals to increase
in such numbers.

Mimicry. A feature of greatest interest among adult
insects, and, we may say, one of the most successful in
its purpose, is that means of defense which is secured

58

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

through what we are wont to call mimicry. The defini-
tion of this term, a word not in all respects expressing
the intended meaning, can probably be best given in
illustrations.

We are all familiar with that old-fashioned brown
butterfly to be seen lazily making its way over the
meadows in the late summer days ; and sometimes in the

Fio. 49. Caterpillar about to pupate, and chrys-
alis of the monarch butterfly. Photographed
from life.

autumn great strings of them may be seen moving south-
ward, or clusters of them hanging to the branches of a
tree in such numbers as 1 to obscure the color of the leaves.
This is the monarch <>r milkweed butterfly, 1 to be found
wherever the milkweed grows.

From its careful, easy manner of flight in exposed
places, this milkweed butterfly evidently takes little
thought of predatory birds, and the reason is that in-
sectivorous birds care nothing for it. If perchance a
bird, a young inexperienced fledgling, pounces upon
one of these milkweed butterflies, it soon lets go, be-

l Anosia plexippus.

PROTECTIVE DEVICES

59

ifr^*

FIG. 50. Mimicking and mimicked forms. Forms with W are wasps, with protective
stings. All the others are moths resembling wasps. Photographed by V. L. Kellogg.

cause when the beak presses the insect's body, therefrom
is emitted a rank carroty odor extremely distasteful to
the bird. Possibly every young bird has this lesson to
learn at least once --that is, that this brown, black-
marked butterfly is not a dainty tidbit. And may we
not say that this lesson after repeated learnings by
successive generations becomes instinctive, and the in-
sect immune from the attack of the birds ?

All this is of great importance in determining the

60 ELK.MKXTARY WTUDIKS IN INSECT LIFE

welfare and existence of this species of butterfly. Other
butterflies have not the power to emit this noxious odor
and distasteful fluid as a means of protection; but some
of them have succeeded by slow and gradual changes in
assuming colors closely resembling those of the more
favored species.

Most remarkable among these is the simulation of
the viceroy butterfly. 1 On account of its relation to the
milkweed butterfly it has been fitly termed the viceroy,
and the milkweed butterfly has been called the monarch.
As will be seen from the illustrations (Figs. 48 a, 6), the
general appearance of the two is much the same. The
viceroy, however, is smaller, and bears a transverse
black band upou the hind wing. This butterfly was
once much darker than it is now. The brown color
was present in a small degree, and this coloring has
increased by natural selection until we have the present
protective form. ]Ias this change of color been carried
on through the conscious activity of the insect '( In other
words, "Can the Ethiopian change his skin, or the
leopard his spots ( " Mimicry is not consciously carried
on, but has to be accounted for by natural selection;
that is, those viceroys having the greater amount of
brown were more likelv to decei\v the birds than those

.

with less, -consequently they lived to reproduce in
kind other- with prominent brown markings, and among
them those displaying the brown most prominently
were most likely to live to reproduce again in turn, the
brown colors increasing, and so through a long series

l Basil(irchia archippus.

JJiJ' 1 (I'l'ini!

.ylh-

ion/. s*>tfi ; - )l ^

^Hr^ >iil i 'i< -

Inc. 4Sf/. The monarch butterfly.
(A'ltnxia ple.ripi.niit. )

Fi<;. 4H/,. The vicbroy l.nttorfly.

( Basiiarchia arcHi.ppiis.)

I

!

'

Fi(4. 48r. Another member of the viceroy genus, />V/x-
ilarfhia. To show usual coloring of the othrr
of this

s ^'iius.

'

l'l;<)TK< TIVK DEVICES

Cl

of generations until \vc have the present form. Thus
natural selection slowly, yet potently, shapes the destiny
not only of inserts, but of all animals and plants.

MIMICKED FORMS. Insects with powers of defense. From photographs.

<*>.':

FlG.51.

The honey-bee.
(Apis mellijii-ii.)

FIG. 52.

A wasp.

(Vespa occidrntdlix.)

FIG. 53.

A bumblebee.
(Bomb its Howardi.)

MIMICKING FORMS. Insects without powers of defense ; protected by their re-
semblance to dreaded insects. From photographs.

FIG. 51a.

A fly.
(Eristalis latifrons )

T

FIG. 52a.

A beetle.

(Glytus marginicollis.)

,. '

FIG. 53a.

A fly.
(Volucelld iTi-i-tn i

62 ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

CHAPTER IV

SOLITARY LIFE

SOME insects lead a social life ; other insects are soli-
tary in their habits. We find within the insect tribe
many hermits, with almost miraculous foresight, expend-
ing their lives and energies constructing abodes for the
protection. of their young as well as storehouses for food
to nourish their young. Unattended, the young grow
from infancy to maturity within these little darkened
homes, prepared and provisioned by a parent who in
most cases has gone before the offspring mature.

The solitary wasps are the most interesting forms of
this class. These insects are of two sexes. It is the
duty of the female to make a nest for each one of her
young, and to see that nourishment is furnished it suffi-
cient for its sustenance until maturity. The males are
irresponsible creatures, assuming little if any direction
in family affairs. The adult wasp lives upon fruit or
nectar ; the young are reared upon animal food. Each
species is particular as to the kind of food selected, so
that we find certain species always provisioning their
nests with flies, others with spiders, others with cater-
pillars, and yet others with grasshoppers, and so on.
Generation after generation and year after year the same
species are reared upon the very same class of food, pro-
cured in like manner by the parent guided by the force
we are wont to call instinct.

SOLITARY LIFE 63

Social Development In the development of social life
among insects we find all gradations, the solitary, the
gregarious, and the social. The independent insects,
such as the chinch-bug;, take little thought for their off-
spring. Then come forms such as the solitary wasps, to
he treated further on; these provide for their young.
Then come the mining-bees, which live apparently in
communities in sandbanks, but which in reality have but
an entrance or hall in common, off from which each in-
sect has a separate apartment where no other intrudes.
Then come the ants and bees with their communistic
life, division of labor and sharing of responsibilities. In
such an organization is to be found the most advan-
tageous plan of life. The ant alone is helpless, but in
its organization, the colony, it is one of the most suc-
cessful, because, by reason of numbers and division of
labor, it secures protection, food, shelter, and insures like
conditions for its offspring. The most successful are the
most sociable.

Mud-daubers. -Familiar to all of us are the mud-
daubers. They are to be seen any bright day flying
around the moist earth in the vicinity of our wells, or
nervously walking about on the muddy edges of some
little pool or pond. If you will watch one of them
you will soon observe it kneading and rolling up the
clay with its mandibles into pellets to build a strange
little cell for its young in the most peculiar and out-
of-the-way place. You may at some time have found
one of their domiciles attached to an unused garment
in your cloak-room ; you have doubtless seen these

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

FIG. 54. A mud-dauber (Pelopceus cemen-
tarius). XI 1 --

mud-daubers' homes
pasted to the under
side of your porches,
around the barns, and
not infrequently un-
der the bridges of the
highway. If you will
break open one of
these nests you will
find, if the time is
right, the developing
form surrounded by
spiders in a comatose condition; or if perchance the
regular occupant is gone you will find the remnants
of these same spiders in this little adobe structure.

The strength and prowess frequently displayed by
these solitary wasps in securing their prey is often re-
markable. They will frequently enter dark hay-mows
and old garrets in quest of spiders for their young.
The writer on one occasion observed one of these at-
tempt to drag a good-sized ground-spider up the side of
a church to a knot-hole in the weather-boards, where
the wasp was constructing a nest. Laboriously and yet
steadily did it go diagonally up the building, moving
backward with its mandibles fastened in its load, until
it reached an elevation of about three feet, when, its
strength giving out, the wasp, spider and all fell to the
ground. This operation was repeated three times be-
fore darkness interfered with the insect's work for that
day.

When these female wasps are ready to deposit their

SOLITARY LIFE

^

65

'*

FIG. 55. Mud-daubers and their nests. From photograph. X "i .

eggs they prepare a nest, as it were, by digging a hole
in the ground or excavating a cavity in some tree or
partially decayed log or stem, or constructing a cell of
mud or of wood pulp. Here they place the eggs singly,
and proceed to capture the characteristic food for their
young. These caterpillars, or whatever the prey may be,
they sting in such a way as to stupefy. In this condi-
tion the captives remain, to become food for the young

upon their appearance.
5

ELEMENTAKY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

The actions of the parent in capturing this prey and
placing it in a position in the nest as food awaiting
the hatching of the egg, are among the most interesting
observations to be made in the study of animal life. A
number of remarkable instances have been recorded.
One which will serve the purpose here, and which goes
even farther in showing the use of tools among insects,
was observed by Dr. S. W. Williston, of the University
of Kansas, and is here given in his own language :

" Even the casual observer, to whom all insects are
bugs, cannot help but be struck by the great diversity
and number of the fossorial llymenoptera of the plains.
Water is often inaccessible, trees there are few or none,
and only in places is the vegetation at all abundant.
A much larger proportion of insects, hence, find it
necessary to live or breed in holes in the ground, than
is the case in more favored localities. Especially is
this the case with the Hymenoptera, great numbers and
many species of which thus breed in excavations made
by themselves.

" While packing specimens on an open space, uncov-
ered by buffalo-grass, in the extreme western part of
Kansas, the early part of last July, the attention of a
friend and myself was attracted by the numerous
wasps that were constantly alighting upon the ground.
The hard, smooth, baked surface showed no indications
of disturbance, and it was not till we had attentively
watched the insects that we learned what they were
doing. The wasp is a very slender one, more than an
inch in length, with a slender, pedicellate abdomen;
it is known to entomologists as Ammophila Yarrowi
Ores. They were so numerous that one was distracted

SOLITARY LI1<K

67

68

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IX INSECT LIFE

by their very multiplicity, but, singling out different
individuals, we were enabled to verify each detail of
their operations. An insect, alighting, ran about on
the smooth, hard surface till it had found a suitable
spot to begin its excavation, which was made about a
quarter of an inch in diameter, nearly vertical, and

FIG. 57. The tarantula-hawk (Pepsi's formosa),
one of the giant wasps, which stores its burrows
with tarantulas. From a photograph.

carried to a depth of about four inches, as was shown
by opening a number of them. The earth, as removed,
was formed into a rounded pellet and carefully carried
to the neighboring grass and dropped. For the first
half of an inch or so the hole was made of a slightly
greater diameter. When the excavation had been car-
ried to the required depth, the wasp, after a survey
of the premises, flying away, soon returned with a large
pebble in its mandibles, which it carefully deposited
within the opening; then, standing over the entrance
upon her four posterior feet, she (I say she, for it was
evident that they were all females) rapidly and most
amusingly scraped the dust with her two front feet,
' hand over hand,' back beneath her, till she had filled

SOLITARY LIFE 60

the hole above the stone to the top. The operation so
far was remarkable enough, but the next procedure was
more so. When she had heaped up the dirt to her satis-
faction, she again flew away and immediately returned
with a smaller pebble, perhaps an eighth of an inch in
diameter, and then standing more nearly erect, with
the front feet folded beneath her, she pressed down the
dust all over and about the opening, smoothing off the
surface, and accompanying the action with a peculiar
rasping sound. After all this was done, and she
spent several minutes each time in thus stamping the
earth, so that onlv a keen eve could detect anv abrasion

*.. /

of the surface, she laid aside the little pebble and
flew away to be gone some minutes. Soon, however,
she comes back with a heavy flight, scarcely able to
sustain the soft green larva, as long as herself, that
she brings. The larva is laid upon the ground, a little
to one side, when, going to the spot where she bad
industriously labored, by a few rapid strokes she throws
out the dust and withdraws the stone cover, laying it
aside. Xext, the larva is dragged down the hole, where
the wasp remains for a fe\v minutes, afterwards return-
ing and closing up the entrance precisely as before.
This, we thought, was the end, and supposed that the
wasp would now be off about her other affairs, but
not so; soon she returns with another larva, precisely
like the first, and the whole operation is again repeated.
And not only the second time, but again and again, till
four or five of the larva- have been stored up for the sus-
tainment of her future offspring. Once, while a was])
had gone down the hole with a larva, my friend quietly
removed the stone door that she had placed near the

70

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

SOLITARY LIFE

71

entrance. Returning, she looked about for her door,
but not finding it, apparently mistrusted the honesty
of a neighbor, which had just descended, leaving her
own door temptingly near. She purloined this pebble
and was making off with it, when the rightful owner
appeared and gave chase, compelling her to relinquish it.

" The things that struck us as most remarkable were
the unerring judgment in the selection of a pebble of
precisely the right size to fit the entrance, and the
use of the small pebble in smoothing down and packing
the soil over the opening, together with the instinct that
taught them to remove every evidence that the earth had
been disturbed."

Coinciding with this are the interesting observations
subsequently made by George W. and Elizabeth Peck-
ham : " Just here must be told the story of one little
wasp whose individuality stands out in our minds
more distinctly than that of any of the others. We
remember her as the most fastidious and perfect little
worker of the whole season, so nice \vas she in her
adaptation of means to ends, so busy and contented in
her labor of love, and so pretty in her pride over her
completed work. In filling up her nest she put her head
down into it and bit away the loose earth from the sides,
letting it fall to the bottom of the burrow, and then,
after a quantity had accumulated, jammed it down with
her head. Earth was then brought from the outside and
pressed in, and then more was bitten from the sides.
When, at last, the filling was level with the ground, she
brought a quantity of fine grains of dirt to the spot,
and picking up a small pebble in her mandibles, used it
as a hammer in pounding them down with rapid strokes,

72

ELEMENTAKY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

thus making this spot as hard and firm as the surround-
ing surface. (Fig. 58.) Before we could recover from
our astonishment at this performance, she had dropped
her stone and was bringing more earth. We then threw
ourselves down on the ground that not a motion might
be lost, and in a moment we saw her pick up the pebble
and again pound the earth into place with it, hammer-
ing now here and now there until all was level. Once
more the whole process was repeated, and then the little
creature, all unconscious of the commotion that she
had aroused in our minds, unconscious indeed, of
our very existence, and intent only on doing her work
and doing it well, gave one final, comprehensive
glance around, and flew away."

SOCIAL LIFE

73

CHAPTER V
SOCIAL LIFE

For where 's the state beneath the firmament,
That doth excel the bees for government ?

Du Bartas.

So work the honey-bees,
Creatures that by a rule in Nature teach
The act of order to a peopled kingdom.

Shakespeare.

* f
*+-

ITIIIN reach of almost every school-
house in the land then 1 exists a
colony of bees. Every school-In v

t/ / i'

and school-^irl knows the honey-
bee, and many of them have be-
come familiar by experience with
some of its traits. The busy bee has method in its
business, and its mode of life is worthy of our careful
study.

The Colony. A colony, hive or household, consists of
from twenty-five thousand to thirty-five thousand worker
bees, a few hundred drones, and a queen. The greatest
number of bees are present in the hive during the
honey-gathering season, when their services are must
needed, and the least number of bees will be found in
the hive during the winter months, when the fewer the
mouths there are to feed, the longer will last the food.
It frequently happens that during the honey season
the number exceeds thirty-five thousand, and in the

74 ELEMENTAEY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

winter the hive may dwindle far below twenty-five thou-
sand and still retain its organization.

In every hive there is a form of government, political
you may call it, but uniform throughout the whole
realm of the bee world. The same offices exist in all
and the functions of each office are constant.

The Queen. - The most important personage in the
beehive is the queen, whom people, before her true
function was known, called the " king bee," on account
of her size. From neither of these terms must it be

FIG. 59. A queen bee. X 2.

inferred that she is in any sense a despot, for, though
the most important and attractive personage in the hive 2
she is more frequently ruled than ruler. She receives,
however, every attention that can be bestowed upon her
by her attendants ; and well may they caress her, for
around her centers the existence of the hive.

The queen is the only fully developed female in the
hive. She is the mother of the entire colony; she lays
all the eggs, from which hatches every bee that exists
within the hive. The eggs which she lays bring forth
workers, queens and drones in accordance with the well-

SOCIAL LIl-'K <.)

organized plans of this government. The eggs which
produce queens and workers are in nowise different.
They are spoken of as fertile eggs ; that is, they con-
tain within them the male element. The eggs which
are unfertilized bring forth drones. There is no evi-
dence, however, that drones cannot also be produced
from fertilized eggs.

The eggs hatch in about three days after being laid.
The newly hatched larvse are fed by nurse bees with a
lactic fluid which is secreted in a portion of the alimen-
tary canal of the nurse bee. All are fed with this until
about three days old, when the bees intended to become
workers and drones are given a substance familiarly
known as bee-bread. Those larva 1 which are to make
queens are fed throughout their whole growing period
with this lactic fluid from the nurse hees ; a substance
which, on account of its being the sole nourishment of
the queen not only during her period of development but
likewise throughout her whole existence, is commonly
called " royal jelly." From this it will be seen that the
only difference between the queen and the worker is in
the quality of the food given to them in their growing
stages.

The presence of a queen is necessary to the existence
of every colony, and should the queen be removed fmin
any cause the workers at once set about to develop an-
other queen by continuously feeding a newly hatched
larva with this royal jelly. The queen spends about
three days in the egg stage, six in the larval, and seven
in the quiescent or pupal stage, before appearing as an
adult.

The queen cells are houses in which the queens are

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

reared, and are different from those in which the worker
and drone bees are reared. Figure (>0 shows the large
queen cells extending out from the comb, not unlike
a peanut in shape. These, it might be added, are cells
which have been constructed in an artificial way ; that
is, when the bees are forced to produce a queen out of
the regular swarming season. At the regular season of

FIG. 60. Brood corub, showing queen cells protruding.

the year, when the bees give regular attention to rear-
ing a few queens, the queen cells will be found usually
at the ends and bottom of the comb.

These young queens will become fertile and begin
laying eggs when they are ten to twelve days old. An
active queen will deposit from two to three thousand
eggs daily. She is of great service to her colony for
two years, and may live still longer. The queen is in-
tensely jealous, and will brook no rival in her domain.
The appearance of another queen is a signal for a
battle, which generally terminates in the death of one.
It is on such occasions only that queens use their stings.

SOCIAL LIFE

77

Should a newly hatched queen discover another queen
cell, if not prevented hy the worker bees she will imme-
diately tear open and kill the young queen found therein.
The Drone. - The drone is developed from the unfer-
tilized eggs, placed in cells >omewhat larger than worker

FIG. 61. A drone bee. X 2.

cells. These develop in nix nit twenty-four days, remain-
ing three in the egg, six in the larval, and fifteen in the
pupal stage. These are reared in large numbers during
the swarming season, in order that the fertility of all
queens may be assured. The drone, as is generally
known, is the male, and has no tools for collecting-
honey or gathering pollen, and is therefore, after the
swarming season, looked upon as a useless member of
society, only to be stung out of the hive. This the
worker bees hasten to do as soon as his period of use-
fulness is past.

The Worker. - The worker is the bee familiar to all
of us ; the one respected for its business air as well as
its powers of defense. Workers mature in about twenty-
one days, spent in the following stages: three days in
the egg state, five in the larval state, and thirteen

78

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

FIG. 62. A worker bee. X 2.

in the pupal stage.
The worker, as its
name implies, is the
laborer of the hive.
It gathers all the
honey, the pollen, the
propolis or bee-glue,
carries water, secretes
wax, builds comb, pre-
pares food, nurses the young brood, defends the hive,
and cleans house. The workers are busy night and day.
In a well-regulated colony the division of labor is as
follows: The first work the young bee performs after
it is two or three days old is to prepare food and feed
the larva? in the cells ; its next duty, when ten or twelve
days old, is to secrete wax and build the comb ; at
about twenty days old it becomes a honey-gatherer from
the field. The young bee is easily known by the pale
color and lack of strength ; in a few days it becomes
stronger and is well covered with hair ; the aged worker
is known by its tattered wings and
bald body. The average life of the
worker is about five weeks. If you
will sit somewhere between the hive
and the bee pastures you will fre-
quently see the old bald bees falling
by the wayside ; their strength is ex-
hausted and their wings are no
longer fit for duty.

Bees, like people, have disposi-

Fio. 63. Secretion of

tions; they have moods. These dis- wax scales. (Enlarged,

from "Illustrirte Bie-

positions seem to be transmitted nen-zeitung.)

SOCIAL LIFE

79

ant

FIG. 64. Head and mouth-parts
of worker bee. Eye, compound
eye ; ant, antennse ; Ib, labium ;
md, mandible ; g, maxilla ; Ip,
labial palpi ; pg, paraglossa ; /,
tongue or glossa.

from generation to generation, so
that certain tees have to-day the
reputation of being kind, gentle
and tractable, and others irrita-
ble, easily disturbed, and ever
ready for a fray. They are
characterized as industrious and
frugal. They are not, however,
at all times possessed of integ-
rity, for if the nectar from the
flowers becomes scarce they are
wont to look about for some
weak neighboring colony to rob
of its small and feebly defended
store of sweets.
Have you ever seated yourself by the side of a colony
and watched the comings and goings of the bees ? Have
you seen the pollen baskets, well laden, being taken into
the hive ? Have you ever seen the young ones go forth
to establish themselves in housekeeping? These are
some things which you must see in order to appreciate
them ; so arrange with some beekeeper in your neighbor-
hood for a visit to his apiary. He, I am sure, will be
only too glad to act as your instructor during your visit.
When there examine the honeycomb proper, and the
brood comb, containing workers, drones, and queens.
Make a drawing of the shape of the mouths of each one
of these cells. Is the shape of these mathematically
accurate ; that is, is each of them a true hexagon ?

Swarming.- - The young bees are hatched in such num-
bers in the spring that the old hive cannot longer accom-
modate all of them. This, together with the mortal jeal-

80

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

ousy of the queens, makes the es-
tablishment of a new home neces-
sary. On some bright spring
morning, therefore, in every well-
established colony there arises a
great commotion, attended by un-
nsnal bnzzing sounds. The bees
begin to pour forth in an impet-
iion s current. The crowd of merry
hummers, circling, fill the air witli
an indescribable rustling murmur.
More keep crowding through the
doorway, until the air is darkened
by a large and giddy circle of bees.
In a little while the center grows
darker, and this in the vicinity of
some branch upon which all pour
down in the same fashion that they
left the hive. Somewhere within
this living mass is the queen of the
hive. Here they " settle " to await,
we have reason to believe, the return of the couriers
sent to spy out the land. Good reports being received,
they are up and away to the place sought out, The
would-be emigrants, evidently aware of the contingencies
of such a journey, make full preparations by filling their
honey-sacs before leaving the old hive. This amount of
food will by economy furnish a week's subsistence.

This is " swarming," and you will readily see that
this procedure is in the interests of the race; for if
all lived in one household, however large it might bo

FIG. 65. A newly settled
swarm. Photographed from
life. (Courtesy of the Cen-
tury Co.)

SOCIAL LIFE

81

v WW,,

FIG. 66. Hiving a swarm. Photographed from life.

and however numerous its occupants, should that house
meet destruction nothing would be left to tell the tale
or replace the loss. But with the distribution of homes
throughout the land, the likelihood of a common catas-
trophe is much lessened if not wholly improbable.

Ants. " If the statesman or the philosopher would
study a perfect communistic- society, let him throw
away his histories of poor human attempts and go
and study thoroughly the nearest ant-hill. Then- he
will find no love for friend or wife or child, but a love
for every one. There everything is done for the good
of the whole, and nothing for the individual. The state
makes wars, provides food for all, cares for the children,
owns all the property. lie will find no complaint
against the existing condition of society, no rebels;
but the fate of each one is determined bv the accident

4 ELEMEXTAKY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

of birth, and each takes up its work without a murmur.
He will find that this perfect commune has developed
courage, patriotism, loyalty, and never-failing industry ;
but he will find also that war, pillage, slavery, and an
utter disregard of the rights of other communities and
individuals, are as prevalent as they are among our
own nations, where selfish private ambition has held
sway so long.'' (COMSTOCK.)

Similar to the economy of the beehive, the workers
are the most active and interesting forms within the
colony. Like the worker bees, the worker ants are unde-
veloped females, and, as their name implies, they do all
the work. This consists of building and defending the
nests, caring for the young, and collecting food. They
not only defend the hives, but they likewise carry on
wars of conquest, frequently going forth to capture
slaves. Some species of ants make a business of raid-
ing the nests of other ants and bringing away the larva?
and pup* to their own nests, to be reared and kept as
slaves. So far has this gone in the case of some species
that the slaveholders have been dependent, upon their
slaves so long that they are unable to carry on the
work without the aid of slaves, and become helpless
when the slaves are removed. It would seem, too, that
these slaves have been slaves so long that they have be-
come such by instinct. Huber placed several of the
slaveholders by themselves, where nearly all of them
helplessly starved though plenty of food w r as accessible.
A slave was then introduced. This slave immediately
set to work constructing a nest and administering nour-
ishment to those still alive, thus saving its stupid mas-
ters from death.

SOCIAL LIFE

83

Ants also show their ingenuity in caring for herds.
This system of stock-raising and dairying can he ob-
served by any sharp-eyed student. The herds of the ants,
or, as they are sometimes called, the ant cows, are the
plant-lice or aphids, such forms as molest your pan-
sies. These it is that are cared for by the ants. In

FIG. 67. "Mud shed" built by ants for sheltering their "herds" of aphids.
Photographed from life by M. V. Slingerland.

some cases they show great forethought in taking the
eggs of these aphids into their homes and caring for
them, rearing the aphids and carrying them out and
placing them in green pastures. The aphids reward the
ants for this attention by giving them a s\veet substance
generally called honeydew. This substance appears in
minute drops upon the back of the aphid. It is fre-
quently excreted in quantities sufficient to coat the leaves

84 ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

of branches below the aphids. Sometimes this fluid is
noticeable on the stone walks above which there are
trees in which are plant-lice. This method of ants con-
ducting 1 their farming system the student can observe for
himself. Whenever ants are found going- up and down
a tree, it may be taken for granted that they are going
and returning from aphid pastures. The redbud tree is
a favorite with some species of aphids. A branch of this
upon which aphids and ants are found can be removed
and the stem placed in a vessel containing water. The
leaves will remain green for some time and the relations
existing between aphid and ant can be observed.

If the student has not already discovered it, his at-
tention is now called to the fact that there are three
classes of ants in a colony : males, females, and workers.
The first two are winged and the workers are wingless.
During the summer it will be possible for the student to
observe a number of ants coming forth from the hives
and taking flight. Many of the colonies of ants are
doing this at the same time. It is during this flight
that the female, commonly called the queen, is fertilized.
She drops to the earth, tears off her wings, these being
no longer required, and endeavors to secure a place to
deposit her eggs. She is sometimes taken into a colony
of her own species, and sometimes she starts a new
colony from the eggs which she lays. Comstock has
shown in a series of interesting experiments that it is
possible for a queen of the carpenter ant 1 to build her
cell, lay her eggs and bring forth the first of her brood
without taking any food whatever. The cell she builds

^Camponutus pennsylvanicus.

SOCIAL LIFE

85

is a closed one, and contains no store of food excepting
what may be within the body of the queen. The term
queen, as in the case of bees, is a misnomer, since these
queens do not rule 1m t are simply the mothers of their
respective colonies. The queen ant differs from the
queen bee in that she is not jealous, and a number of
queen ants may be found living peaceably within the
same hive.

The ant-eggs are small and not easily observed. The
larvae are white and legless. Those oblong egg-shaped
bodies which are frequently mistaken for eggs are the
pupa-cases or cocoons from which the adults, with the
tender assistance of their nurses, will emerge.

Wasps. Wasps, in their habits, are of two classes,
social and solitary. Of the former, the hornets * and
yellow- jackets 2 are the best known. The hornets build
large spherical homes from the weather-beaten wood
fibers which they have scraped off, chewed up into a
pulpy mass, and then plastered out into thin layers
with their deft mandibles. Boys and girls who have
been brought up in wooded countries are familiar with
the appearance of the large spherical hornets' nest de-
pending from some tree or bush. In the fall of the year
these deserted nests are sometimes gathered and placed
in the stables to repel, as farmers believe, all manner
of diseases from the horses kept there. The sting of
these wasps, called into use upon the slightest provoca-
tion, is much to be respected. Though these insects
are somewhat warlike, when approached quietly and
cautiously one may have the privilege of standing

l Vespa sp. -Polistfs .--p.

86

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

close by and watching the workers come with their little
pellets of wood-pnlp and spread the material skillfully
and frugally over the place desired.

The yellow- jackets build nests of the same material,
but construct them of only a single layer of cells. They

FIG. 08. Yellow-jackets (polistes sp.) and their nests. From a photograph. y 2 .

locate them generally in some sheltered place, such as
under a large flattened rock which lies loosely upon
other rocks near the ground, or under a porch or simi-
larly sheltered place.

The life history of these two kinds of wasps is much

SOCIAL LIFE

87

the same. In the fall of the year the fertilized queens
hibernate in the crevices and sheltered nooks. In the
spring they look
about for suitable
nesting-places ; with
wood-pulp gathered
by themselves they
build up the first
layer of cells. The
queen deposits an egg
in each of these cells
and feeds the newly
hatched grubs a week
or ten days until the}
pupate. Ten days
later the perfect
wasps have come out
of these cells and arc
ready to take up
their share of the re-
sponsibility in the
work of the colony.
These first wasps are
workers. The work of
gathering the wood-
pulp and moulding
the same into cells now devolves wholly upon these
workers. The queen devotes her time and attention to
depositing an egg in each of the cells. The colony con-
sists of the queen and an increasing number of workers,
until the late summer, when drones are developed. As

FIG. 69. Hornets' nest. Drawn from nature
by Miss M. E. Wise.

88

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

the cool weather announces the approach of winter, the
workers and queens desert the hive, leaving- the help-
less drones and unat-
tended young to per-
ish. The workers
wander about until
killed by frost. The
queens alone seek
some sheltered place
to spend the winter. 1
The social wasps
are predaceous. They
feed their young
upon insects which
they have masticated.
Adults seek also the
nectar of flowers, the
juices of fruits, and
the honeydew of
plant-lice.

The queens, drones
and workers are simi-
lar in color. The
queens are larger
than the workers.
The drones do not sting, but unfortunately their close
resemblance to the hostile and much-dreaded workers
leads us to repel the advances of all alike. The number
of individuals existing at one time among these social
wasps is often quite great, but there are not so many
species as there are among solitary wasps.

1 Iii Brazil there are perennial communities of wasps founded by swarm after the
fashion of bee colonies. (Von Ihering.)

Fie. 70. Hornets' nest; one side removed,
to show arrangement of combs within. Drawn
from nature by Miss M. E. Wise.

INSTINCT. s ' !

CHAPTEE VI

INSTINCT

THE remarkable actions of the wasps related in the
foregoing chapter naturally give rise to the question,
What prompts and directs snch actions ? Activities of
this class are common ti> all, or nearly all, of each spe-
cies possessing snch traits. Each works after its own
manner and in a way that is uniform for each specie^.
Some of these acts occur before the insect is old enough
to be taught. Such acts are said to be instinctive. In-
stinctive acts are for the most part, if not altogether,
performed without reflection. Insects do certain things
in a certain way. Their actions seem to accord with
their natural surroundings, but should their environ-
ments be changed their actions are not changed accord-
ingly. For instance, a certain wasp provisions its nest
with a large grasshopper. The wasp drags the grass-
hopper along by one of the antenna 1 . When the antenna'
are cut off, the wasp looks around the head, and finding
no antenna 1 , gives up the task and flies away. It never
occurs to the wasp to take hold of a leg and proceed.
An excellent example is the case <if the trap-door spider,
not itself an insect, but one of the insect allies. This
trap-door spider makes its home in tubular burrows
beneath the surface of the ground. It covers its tube
with a hinged trap-door. When the spider is pur-
sued it seeks refuge within its home, closing the trap-
door after it. Where these spiders dwell the ground

90 ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

is carpeted with moss, so in making this trap-door the
spider covers it with moss, an act for protection, for
when the door is closed no trace of the spider's hiding-
place is visible. If in the absence of the spider the moss
be removed from the door and the earth bared over con-
siderable space around the door, the spider will upon her
return carry moss across the open space and re-cover her
trap-door, making this not a protection but the most
conspicuous object on the situation. That which
prompts the wasp to drag the grasshopper only by the
antenna?, and which causes the spider to cover its trap-
door with moss, is termed instinct. Had the wasp and
the spider shown their ability to cope with changed con-
ditions, their actions would have been due to reason.
These instinctive actions are those which are performed
without learning or practice.

Actions of the Newly Born. Instinct is, then., best il-
lustrated by the actions of the newly born forms. Young
wasps, just out of the pupa-case, though limp and almost
helpless, when disturbed protrude the sting and move
the abdomen about in various directions, in their en-
deavor to sting the disturber. They seem to perform
these acts as perfectly as do the mature wasps. Sting-
ing, then, is a purely instinctive act. The young cater-
pillar's first act (p. 14) after leaving the egg is to turn
around and eat the egg-shell. All the young caterpillars
of the swallowtail butterfly do this. Not one of them
before doing this has had an opportunity to be taught
this act. They do it instinctively. The origin of in-
stinct is an open question: some authorities believe
that the act of one individual repeated many times be-
comes a habit, and that this habit can be transmitted

INSTINCT 91

from generation to generation until it becomes an in-
stinct ; that is, instincts are "inherited habits." Other
authorities believe that instinct is due to natural selec-
tion. Insects with certain habits favorable to their exist-
ence live to reproduce in kind, while those without these
characteristics perish before they have brought forth
young. For instance, according to this view, the earlier
generations of wasps did not all sting. Those that did
not sting were more liable to succumb when attacked,
while those who used their stings vigorously survived,
and lived to beget forms with a tendency to sting. In
time the stinging wasps were the only ones left, and
among them the most violent stingers would still be the
most liable to perpetuate the species.

Acts of Mature Life. Among the best examples of in-
stinctive acts of mature life, stand the interesting habits
of insects. The making of homes, the homing instinct,
as already noted, in the case of bees and wasps (pp.
79, SO), the waging of wars and the making of slaves
among ants (pp. 81, 8:2), are examples of this class
of instincts. It must be conceded that every individual
is not likely to perform these acts in identically the
same manner, and further, that there is a possibilitv
of action somewhat intelligent while in the performance
of these instinctive acts of mature life. It is not at all
likely that every Ammophila (p. G8) makes use of a
pebble in the work of storing food for the sustenance
of offspring. To those that do this, intelligent action
must be accredited. Such insects have profited by the
experiences of their own lives.

Acts Associated with Reproduction. - The construction
of homes and the storage of food for their voung are the

92

KLKMKXTAKY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

hi<>-hest forms of insect instinct in this class. Such in-

o

stinctive acts have been fully discussed in the previous
chapter. To the same class of acts belongs the care
with which certain insects, such as butterflies, deposit
their eggs in the vicinity of the natural food plant of
their offspring. The most wonderful of all is that of
the Pronuba moth, discussed elsewhere (p. 112). The

FIG. 71. Female wasp (Sphes speciosus) carrying a cicada to her burrow,
an instinctive act associated with reproduction. Natural size. (After Kiley.)

Pronuba moth gathers the pollen and carries it to the
proper place in order that the yucca blossom may be
fertilized to furnish succulent seeds for the young which
is to hatch from the egg she places in the ovary of the
yucca flower. This is an instinct most wonderful in its
perfection, and certainly as obscure in its origin.

Limitations of Instinct. Instinct has certain bounds,
and when activities have passed beyond these bounds
they become something more than instinct. A wasp

INSTINCT 93

that was unable to drag away the grasshopper because
it could not find antenna 1 to take hold of, and the spider
that made its subterranean home conspicuous by cover-
ing- it with moss, are examples of the limitation of in-
stinct. The activity of certain insects seems to go be-
yond the bounds of instinct and enter the realm of
thought. Such insects are credited with intelligence.

Instinct and Reason. A colony of bees finding a dead
snail within their hive, endeavored to drag it out. This
\vas an instinctive act, since it was instinctive with them
to repel all intruders, but when they were unable to re-
move the snail thev at once covered it over with wax

</

and hermetically sealed it in its position. This was no
longer an act of instinct, but an act of reason. It is
evident here that the nerve centers acted independently
of any past experience; that is, there was reason shown
and intelligent action manifested.

The following may be considered the chief instinctive
acts : Choice of food, partaking of food, capture of prey,
building of homes or nests, storing provisions cither for
themselves or their offspring, spinning cocoons of a defi-
nite form. When a customary mode of performing
these instinctive acts is changed, the change is likely to
be due to intelligent adaptation to new modes of life.
Insects which for many generations have built their
nests in a certain kind of places, such as under rocks,
forsake these places and choose better adapted places
under the eaves of houses. Of all the intelligent acts the
one given elsewhere (p. US) stands among the first ; that
is the case of Ammophila using a stone to pound the
earth over her nest.

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

CHAPTEK VII

THE MUTUAL RELATIONS OF PLANTS AND INSECTS

"Insects have been inhabitants of land plants since their
origin in early Paleozoic ages, and the mutual relations of
plants and insects have ever been intimate." Cope.

Plants and insects illustrate interdependences. In-
sects rely upon plants for nourishment; plants depend
upon insects for proper maturation of seed. Some in-
sects are injurious to certain forms of plant life. Such
feed upon the foliage, or live within the body of the
plant. Some insects seek their food within the nectaries
of flowering plants, and in so doing advance the
welfare of the plant. To this latter class we will con-
fine our study.

Near the close of the eighteenth century Sprengel
first pointed out the useful purposes of colors, scents and
singular forms of flowers. He brought forth the facts
that nectar-producing plants have the nectar so situated
as to be protected from rain, yet easily accessible to in-
sects. He concluded "that the nectar of these flowers
is secreted for the sake of insects, and is protected from
rain in order that the insects may get it pure and un-
spoiled." His first observations, then, were that plants
exist for the benefit of insects. Later, however, he
made additional discoveries, which led him to believe
that many flowers are absolutely incapable of being fer-
tilized without the aid of insects, and therefore the secre-
tion of nectar and its protection from rain by the plant,

ri.AXTS AND INSECTS

and the bright color of the corolla, are contrivances made
by the flower in its own interests; that is, to accomplish
the fertilization of the flower. Such flowers are, he
says, fertilized by some one species of insect or by sev-
eral species, and the insects in approaching the nectar
brush pollen from the anthers with various hairy parts
of their bodies and convey it to the stigma. Sprengel
did not, however, perceive the advantages the plant
gains, further than the mere formation of the seed.
Knight and Herbert, two later workers, perceived, in a
degree, the effects of this fertilization of plants by in-
sects upon subsequent plant generations.

It remained for Darwin to place the almost forgotten
work of Sprengel upon a broad basis. " jSTo organic-
being fertilizes itself for a perpetuity of generations,
bnt that a cross with another individual is occasionally,
perhaps at long intervals, indispensable." Darwin fur-
ther showed that, in higher forms and the greater num-
ber of lower animals, the sexes are separate ; that those
forms having the function of the two sexes present
in the one animal, even these pair regularly. Breed-
ers of animals and cultivators of plants have found
that continued in-and-in breeding deteriorates the stock,
while crossing with another breed or another strain of
the same breed increases the strength and productiveness
of the offspring.

Since continuous close-fertilization is detrimental to
the interests of the plants, Mature has brought about
contrivances to prevent such recurrence. She does this
in two ways: (1) by modifications in the structure of
the flower so that the pollen cannot possibly fall upon
the stigma of its own pistil; (2) in other plants, whose

96

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

pollen does fall upon its own stigma, by rendering this
sterile to its own ovule but fertile when transferred to
the flower of another variety of the same stock. Briefly
and in a general way, this sums up the advance of our
knowledge upon this interesting subject. Many subse-
quent investigations have elaborated these principles by
the detailed study of various forms of flowering plants.

cP

P

FIG. 72. Enlarged section of a Bartlett pear flower : sf, style ; sp, sepal ; /,
filament ; a, anther ; s, stigma ; p, petal ; d, disk ; ov, ovule. (After Waite.)

Plants whose Flowers are Sterile to their Own Pollen but
Fertile to Pollen Brought from Other Plants of Same Species.

More than fifty species of plants have been found to be
partially or wholly sterile to their own pollen, but fer-
tile to pollen transferred from other plants of the same

1'LAXTS AM> I.NSKCTS

97

kind. The apple and pear belong to this group. Ac-
cording to Wai re, cross-fertilization is an important fac-
tor in the production of pome fruits.

The pear blossom is a typical flower, composed of five
brownish-green calyx lobes, five white or pinkish petals,
numerous stamens, a five-celled ovary, and live styles and
stigmas. The pear forms at the base of the blossom.
There is within the blossom a yellowish-green
saucer-shaped disk, upon which the nectar is secreted.
Extending from this disk to the ovary are five styles.
Within the ovary are the ovules, which upon proper fer-
tilization become seeds. The ends and a strip down one

FIG, 73. Buds of Bartlett pear. (After Wuite.)

side of the green styles are rough, caused by fringe-
like projections for facilitating the reception and re-
tention of the pollen grains. The stamens terminate in
small roundish bodies, termed anthers. The four-celled
anthers, when mature, split, allowing the pollen to escape
7

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

in two masses as though the anthers were two-celled.
This pollen as well as the nectar serves to attract bees and
other insects. The bright showy petals proclaim to the
insects the location of the nectar.

FIG. 74. Cluster of Bartlett pear blossoms natural size. From a photograph.
(After Waite.)

When a bee visits the flowers the rough stigma brushes
from the insect's hairy coat some of the pollen which ad-
hered to it while seeking nectar in other trees, and if
these trees were another variety this blossom is then
cross-pollinated. The pistils mature (that is, become
ripe, to receive the pollen) two or three days before the

PLANTS AND INSECTS

FIG. 75. Flower of Bartlett
pear natural size. (After
Waite.)

pollen escapes from the anthers of the same flower. The
stigma often extends through the petals before they are

fully open, thus offering the
possibility of pollination from
some earlier blossoming variety,
- another way for cross-fertili-
zation to occur.

The process of fecundation
Waite describes : " Soon after
its protrusion the stigma se-
cretes a sugary fluid, often in
sufficient quantity to be quite
perceptible. In this the pollen
grain readily germinates and throws
out a slender, thread-like tube, which
grows downward into the pistil and
through specially soft tissue, adapted
to its growth, until it reaches the ovules.
Here it enters an opening in the two
outer coats of the ovule and conies in
contact with the germ-cell, or egg-
cell. A number of inter-
esting and complicated
changes now take pla.ce natural size,
in the protoplasm of this cell and in the
end of the pollen tube. A part of the con-
tents of the latter actually passes through
the cell-walls into the egg-cell, which, un-
der this stimulus, immediately begins to
showing only the <> T < , w and divide, ultimately developing

five pistils nat- '.

into the germ of the seed. This stim-

FIG. 76. Bud of
the Bartlett pear,
with the petals re-
moved, showing the
incurved stamens

100 ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

ulus not only causes tlie seed to grow, lint also
the surrounding 1 fruit, the latter depending upon
seed development in most cases. In some cases, how-
ever, the growth of the pollen tube may help to

FIG. 78. Bartlett pear cross-pollinated with the pollen of the Easter pear.

stimulate the fruit to develop independently of the
fecundation of the ovule, which may or may not after-
wards result, and this probably accounts for the fact that
many little fruits begin to develop, but afterwards drop
off."'

PLAXTS AXI) IXSKCTS

101

"\Vaite lias conducted experiments in the cross-fertili-
zation of pears and apples for several years, liy placing
sacks over the buds to prevent the introduction of foreign
pollen, by removing the stamens before ripe and polli-

_

FIG. 79. Seeds from en>"ci]
and from self-pollinated Bart-
lett pears : a, from crossed
pears; b, from self-pollinated
pears. (After Waite.)

natiiiii' the pistils with
pollen from other va-
rieties. The actions
of insects towards the
blossoms were al~"
noted. His conclu-
sions in part are:
Some of the common
varieties of pears re-
quire cross-fertiliza-
tion; some varieties are capable of self-fertilization;
pollen is transported from tree to tree bv bees and other
insects and not bv the wind; bad weather keeps away
insect visitors and hence materially affects the fruit
yield; self-fecundated pears are deficient in seeds, and

FIG. 80. Self-pollinated Bartlett pear.

102 ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

FIG. 81. Baldwin apple cross-pollinated with pollen of the
Bellflower apple. (After Waite.)

FIG. 82. Large specimen of self-pollinated Baldwin apple.

PLANTS AND INSECTS

103

FIG. 83. Small specimen of self-pollinated
Baldwin apple. (After Waite.)

the seeds produced are usually abortive. The crosses
are well supplied with sound seeds; the typical
fruit and in most cases the finest specimens are
from crosses. Accordingly, to secure the best results
not only should an ample number of bees be placed in

FIG. 84. Section of an apple blossom. (After Waite.)

104

ELEMKXTAKY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

the orchard to insure' the visitation of the blossoms, but
the different varieties of each fruit should be placed
promiscuously throughout the orchard in order to facil-
itate the work of cross-fertilization.

Plants whose Flowers are so Constructed as to Prevent
Self-fertilization. A papilionaceous flower is an exam-
ple of a blossom so constructed as tn prevent the falling
of the pollen upon the stigma of its own pistil. The
alfalfa blossom is an example of this class. Its structure
and component parts are illustrated in Figure 85. It
will be seen that the stigma of the ovary is higher than
the pollen-producing anthers, so that the grains of pollen
may all drop to the base of the flower and the ovule go
unfertilized; such being the case, no seed would be
formed. Small forms resembling seed might be found
within the ovary at maturity, but these, not being fer-
tilized, would not germinate.

From the shape and size of the alfalfa blossom, it is
not probable that cross-fertilization could be safely
accomplished by means of currents of air.

It becomes evident, then, that outside agencies must
be called upon, and the plant must provide for these
agencies. The agents in this case we find to be insects,
and the reward offered by the plant for favors rendered
is a sweet drop of nectar; that is, the flower in an en-
ticing way places a tempting sip of nectar in such a
position that when the insect has favored the flower with
a few grains of pollen unconsciously brought from an
adjoining flower and just as unconsciously left, the cov-
eted sip may be enjoyed. It is evident, however, that
the first flower visited will not be cross-fertilized.

The location of the coveted nectar at the base of

L'LAXTS AM) I.XSKCTS

105

the flower, the action of the tongue of the hee and the
work of the hairs under the head and upon the In-east in
placing the pollen upon the stigma, are shown in Figure
Mi and also in Figure S,~>, !>.',. The tlo\vor gives material
aid, hv causing the stamen- and pistils to spring up and
strike the insect.

e.

FIG. 85. a, cluster of alfalfa with bee feeding, b, bee thrusting proboscis into
flower: 1, vexillum ; 2, alas; 3, carina ; 4, reproductive organs (gametangia) ; ,3,
calyx, c, alfalfa bloom with vexillum torn off : ?, ala> ; a, carina ; 4, reproductive
organs (gametangia) ; .1, stigma ; ff, anthers ; 7, calyx, d : 1, filament ; ?, anther ;
V, style; i, stigma, e, pistil: 1, ovary: :', style : .V, stigma : /, ovules. ,/, highly
magnified pollen grains.

A part of .Miiller's observations upon this point are:
If in a YOUUO- flower we cut through the claw of the
carina, the column springs upward to some extent, carry-

106 ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN" INSECT LIFE

ing with it the carina and altv. If in another unexploded
flower we carefully cut through one of the digitiform
processes of the ala 1 , the parts remain motionless ; but on
cutting the processes of the other side, explosion at once
follows. The pouched processes of the carina (Fig.
85, 1)3 and cS} are thus sufficient to hold the column
down without the aid of the processes of the alir (c.J) ;
the alii' alone are not sufficient to hold the column down
when the carina has been cut. Explosion can therefore
be effected equally well by separating the anterior
pouches, by separating the digitiform processes, or,
filially, by depressing the a la? and carina.

If an insect inserts its
proboscis in the middle'
line between the anterior
pouches and the digitiform
processes, or if it stands
upon the ala? and thrusts
its head in the middle line

FIG. 86. Pollination of alfalfa flower lm dei' the Vexilluill, ill
by bee. See fig. 64 for honey-collecting

tools of bee. either case explosion fol-

lows. The stigma (c5) projects beyond the anthers,
and therefore is the first to strike the under surface
of the bee's body or proboscis ; an instant later the
anthers come in contact, dusting it with fresh pollen.
The first flower that the insect visits is, of course, not
cross-fertilized, but as the bee withdraws from the flower,
self-fertilization inevitably occurs. Self-fertilization is
undoubtedly efficient, for Hildebrand has shown that
flowers which wither unexploded when insects are ex-
cluded produce seed by self-fertilization. The same au-

PLANTS AM) INSECTS

107

thor finds two imperfections in the mechanism. One is
the possibility of the insect securing the nectar without
exploding the flower; the other is that the flower contin-
ues to secrete honey after it has been fertilized.

A large number of rep-
resentative matured pods
were gathered from an al-
falfa field less than one-
half mile away from a
large apiary, and a like
number from another field
of much the same soil, and
practically under like con-
ditions as the first field, ex-
cept that the second field
was situated twenty-five
miles away from a colony
of bees. No bees were ob-
served in the field, and the
character of the surroundings, there beim; 1 no timber or
probable living-places, was such as to preclude the possi-
bility of wild bees in the vicinity. The pods from each
locality were carefully opened and the number of seeds
in each counted. In the field near the apiary the aver-
age number of seeds in a pod was found to be .">..") X;
seeds plump; pods numerous in cluster; pods having
several spirals. In the other field the average number
of seeds in a pod was .'5.:;,'); seeds in at least one-third
of the pods were small and shriveled ; pods few in clus-
ter; short, with but few spirals. The seed crop of the
first field, on this basis, could be estimated at two-thirds
greater that that of the second field.

FIG. 87. The many-flowered umbels
of the milkweed. Photographed by W.
C. Stevens.

108 ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

Plants with Special Adaptations for Bringing About Cross-
fertilization. The milkweed family 1 illustrates one of the
many wonderful designs brought about by plants to in-
sure cross-fertilization. The milkweed blossom is to be
considered one of our highly specialized forms, and the
high degree of development is due in a great measure to

FIG. 88. Entire flower of the milkweed (Asclepiodora viridis). Enlarged.
a a, location of corpusculum ; d, longitudinal slit which separates the anthers, and
into which insect draws its leg ; e, cucullus ; /, petal ; fir, sepal.

the actions of insects. The flower structure' must be
understood before the work of the insect can be appre-
ciated. The blosstan used to illustrate the arrangement
of the parts is that of Asclepiodora v'uidls, or green
milkweed. The five minute sepals (Fig. 88) are sit-
uated beneath and alternating with the five well-devel-
oped petals. By bending these downward as in the fig-
ure, the inner mechanism can be more easily observed.
Five hollow, fleshy, leaf-like organs immediately
within, are attached to the central column. These arc
termed collectively cuculli, or singly cucullus. (Fig.
88.) This fleshy column is made by the union of the five
staminal filaments, each bearing at its upper end an

lAsclepiadacecv.

IT. A NTS AM) IXSKCTS

109

anther. The antliors lie close
around the central stigma,
disk, each anther being sepa-
rated from the other by a
longitudinal slit (Fig. 88, d}
formed by the margins of
flic anthers being extended

FIG. 90. Two pollen-masses
(pollinia) joined by their bands
(retinacula) to their central
body (corpusculum). The frag-
ment hanging down from the
central body between these two
pollen-masses is part of a leg of
an insect which had been caught
in the wedge-shaped slit in this
body, and which had liberated
itself by breaking off and leav-
ing part of its leg fast there-
in. Greatly enlarged. Photo-
graphed by \V. C. Stevens.

Fin. 89. Longitudinal section of
milkweed, a, corpusculum ; <7, slit
between anthers ; n, pollen-mass
(polliniuin) in normal position
within flower.

ont perpendicularly as a slight
triangular membranous expan-
sion. Each anther bears two
pollen-masses. Each of these
masses is called a pollinmm.
Hands or retinacula unite each
polliniuin, to a dark central
body, the corpusculum, situated
at the top of the slit. The cor-
pusculum is hard, horny, and
upon examination is found to
he grooved longitudinally.
(Fig. DO.) This wedge-shaped
iM'oove lies in line with the slit
between the anthers. The
lower part of the slit between
the anthers is wider, and leads
up into tin 1 so-called stigmatic

110

ELEMENTARY STUDIES. IN INSECT LIFE

Fir;. 91. Honey-bee
caught in entrapping
slit of milkweed blos-
som. Photographed
from nature by W. C.
Stevens.

FIG. 93. Moth caught in sev-
eral flowers of milkweed. One
leg has been broken off in its
struggle to free itself. Photo-
graphed from nature by \V. C.
Stevens.

FIG. 92. Cabbage butter-
fly held fast in milkweed
blossom. Photographed
from nature by W. C. Ste-
vens.

FIG. 94. Honey-bee caught
in several blossoms of milk-
weed. Photographed from
nature by W. C. Stevens.

PLANTS AND INSECTS 111

chamber. The cuculli secrete abundance of nectar,
and of a quality which makes insects seek madly
after it, The cueulli and the fleshy column are
smooth, even slippery, the corolla yielding, so that
insects in quest of this nectar find difficulty in re-
taining a firm footing-. All the while the insect is
clawing the disk and cuculli, never feeling stable, yet
acquiring some of the much-coveted sweets. While
insects are thus at work, their claws, or the hairs of
the tarsi or the tibia, are caught in the \vedge-shaped
slit of the corpusculum. If the insect is strong enough,
it brings away with it the corpusculum and its two
swollen masses, one from each adjoining anther, or it
breaks off the ensnared leg in its endeavors to escape.
It' the insect is too weak to pull out the pollinia or to
sever its connection by breaking the retaining member,
it must in consequence die. Such tragedies are not
of infrequent occurrence. In case the insect has power
to carry away the pollinia, its trouble and dangers are
not over, for it will most likely visit another milkweed
blossom, where the complementary contrivance awaits it.
This slit between the anthers is wider at the bottom
for a purpose, and that purpose is to capture the pollin-
ium which the insect, has brought from another flower;
so the insect, in slipping about again upon this second
flower, finds itself fast when the pollinium has entered
at the base of the slit. To facilitate this the more,
these pollinia when first removed become, upon the dry-
ing of the bands or retinacula, twisted inward. This
twisting inward of the pollinia enables their entrance to
the slit to be made the more readily. When the pollinia

112

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

have entered the slit, the insect pulls them up into the
stigmatic chamber. They will go no farther, and the
insect finds itself a prisoner again. If escape is made
it is generally by breaking the retinaculum. The in-
sect then carries away the corpusculum and part of the

FIG. 96. Pollen-masses attached
to leg of bee. a, central body (cor-
FIG. 95. Leg of insect pusculum); 6, band (or retinaculum)

with small chain of corpus- joining pollen-mass to central body;

cula. Photographed from c, pollen-mass (pollinium). Drawn

nature by W. C. Stevens. from nature.

retinaculum. This serves to catch other corpuscula rest-
ing in their natural positions, so that we can frequently
find insects that have continued their visits, bearing a
whole chain of these corpuscula attached to a claw or
some part of the leg. (Fig. 05.) Many insects are at-
tracted bv the nectar. It is evident that only the strong

/

favor the plant. The honey-bee is among the most
frequent visitors, and no student can remain long among
milkweeds in blossom without observing successful cross-
pollination or being an eye-witness to a tragedy.

The Yucca Lily and the Pronuba Moth. The fertiliza-
tion of the yucca blossom by a small white moth sur-
passes all other modes of cross-fertilization by insects,
since the insect is not induced to do the work by tempt-

PLANTS AND INSKC'IS 113

ing nectar, but pollinates the plant apparently with as
much intelligence as a human being would do it, Xot
for any benefit the moth itself may derive therefrom,
but that succulent seeds may be formed within the pod
upon which its yonng may be nourished.

The yucca, or yucca lily as it is sometimes called, is
a familiar plant. Its white flower may be character-
ized briefly by the rather short, distinctly spreading
stamens, with the more extended pistil. The anthers
are so remote from the stigma that self-fertilization
can take place only by the merest chance.

. */

The Pronuba moth is a showy white lepidopteron
about one-half inch long, and seems to have been con-
structed especially for a purpose in the life of the yucca.
The mouth of our common moths and butterflies con-
sists of the two long maxilla- united to form a proboscis,
used in reaching the deep-seated nectar of flowers such
as the honeysuckle. On each side of the proboscis,
near the base, is a mere protruding point, represent-
ing what is left of the once well-developed maxillary
palpi ; then there are two well-developed labial palpi
curving up from beneath the head on each side of the
proboscis, between which the proboscis is coiled up when
not in use.

The female Pronuba moth, the yucca polleni/.er, lias
all of these, but the little protruding point on each side
of the proboscis is well developed into a four- jointed
palpus. From its base there arises a highly specialized
organ, which for want of a U-tter name we call the
maxillary tentacle. These tentacles are coiled somewhat
similar to the proboscis, but are readily distinguished
8

114

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

der head with maxillary tenta-
cles coiled around it. Photo-
graphed from nature. X 6.

from them by their large size, darker color, and spinous
covering; also by their position, since the proboscis is
situated between them.

The female Promiba moth rests quietly during the

clay, head down ward in the blos-
som of the yucca. About sun-
sct, or soon after dark, she may
be seen running np to the top
of one of the stamens, and col-
lecting pollen from the anthers
by extending the tentacles and
proboscis ont over the stamens,
FIG. 97. Head of Pronuba giving her a firmer hold upon

moth, showing pollen-mass un- -, , . . ,

the stamen and bringing the
head close to the anthers. She
now moves her head back and
forth, using the maxillary palpi to scrape the pollen
from the anthers toward the tentacles. The pollen gath-
ered, she packs it in a little
pellet under her head, using her
front feet as well as the tenta-
cles. Then she goes to a second
stamen, collects more in the
same way, and then to another,
until she has collected a pollen-
mass larger than her head.
(Fig. 97.) She generally flies
to another flower to rest awhile,
head downward. After resting, ^ 9g Ovipositor of Pro .

in SOme Cases Ollly a few mill- nuba moth for insertion of egg
. in deep ovary of yucca lily.

utes, in others a much longer (After

PLANTS AND INSECTS

115

time, she scurries around the base of tlie stamens, as-
cends between two of tlie stamens until her head is
slightly beyond the anthers (Fig. 99), inserts her ovi-
positor (Fig. 98) into the ovary, there to place an egg.

FIG. 99. Female Pronuba moth ovipositing on ovary of yucca Illy. Photo-
graphed by flashlight from life, in field, about 8:30 p. M.

She withdraws the ovipositor in about a minute. She
retracts this interesting little tool by two or three jerky
motions. She now quickly ascends the pistil and thrusts
her uncoiled tentacles and proboscis into the stigmatic
opening, rubbing them against the stigmatic surface.
In doing this her head bobs up and down several times.
She returns to the base of the flower, to ascend between

116

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

another pair of stamens and repeat, the operation of egg-
laying. In this way she places five or six eggs in the
ovaries of this flower. After depositing each egg s ] ie
ascends the pistil, and with the same motion, working

Fio. 100. Female Pronuba moth thrusting her tentacles and proboscis into the
stigmatic opening, rubbing off pollen, thus bringing about fertilization of the lily.
Photographed by flashlight from life, in the field, about 9:00 P. M.

her head vigorously (mostly np and down), places more
pollen in the stigmatic tnhe. During all this time she
is so intent upon the work that one can observe her
closely with the aid of a lantern. The moths begin this
work shortly after dark, and continue at work about an
hour.

PLANTS AND INSECTS

117

Now, why does this female Pronuba moth do all this (
It has been shown that down in the stigmatic opening
there is no nectar to attract her; she does not eat
pollen. Then why does she perform this marvelous act
of pollination? She does it to insure food for her
young. For, though the eggs were laid in the ovary,
unless the ovules were properly fertilized they would
wither, would not develop; so the young caterpillars
would perish. A> ii is, the hairy tentacles, surrounding
and rubbing against the pollen-mass under her head,
take oft' some of the grains of pollen, and these are left
in the stigmatic chamber when she thrusts her proboscis
and tentacles therein.

And what is I he sequence of this act? The pollen in
due time fertilizes the ovules; these begin to develop,
and at this stage may be likened to newly formed
garden peas in the pod. Xo one needs to be told that
these young peas are more tender, more succulent than
the fully mature pea. -lust as these ovules are forming,
the moth egg which is beside them hatches, and the little
caterpillar finds awaiting him a breakfast of new peas.
As the seeds develop, the larva grows; the two mature
together. About the time the seed-pod is ready to burst
open the larva bores its way out, descends the plant to
the ground, burrows several inches below the surface,
spins a silken cocoon intermixed with earth, there to
spend the remainder of the summer, the fall and winter,
awaiting the opening of the yucca flower the next sum-
mer, then to emerge to repeat the story, a series of acts
as yet unaccounted for.

Has the question occurred to you, what benefit is
the plant to derive if the insect eats all the seed?

118 ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

Were the total consumption of seed the rule, it is evi-
dent the plant would soon become extinct, and with it
the Pronuba moth. Such is not the case; the elongate
ovaries bear many ovules, more than the larvae enter-
tained will in all probability consume, and so enough
seeds are left unharmed to insure the continuation of
the yucca lily seeds, which will in turn arise to make
possible the further existence of the interesting little
Pronuba moths.

Ol'K Kill ENDS AND FOES

119

CHAPTER VIII
OUR FRIENDS AND FOES

OT every one, indeed, is aware of tlie fact
that insects fill an important part in
the economy of nature. We receive
direct benefits as well as material in-
juries from insects, and it is within
the province of entomology to distin-
guish the character of the insects.

As scavengers, as fertilizers of vegetables and fruits,
or as food for other animals, they not only concern man,
hut, philosophically considered, certain insects are seen
to be essential to his very existence. From them we
receive our sweetest of sweets, several inks and dyes,
our finest of tapestries, a number of acids of chemical
value, and laces and waxes of mercantile worth. That,
we receive injuries, no one needs to be told.

In nature the term " friend " is a relative one. From
the standpoint of the tree-grower, the caterpillar of the
handmaid moth, which deprives the young trees of their
foliage, is an enemy. Dame Xature, however, is as
much interested in the welfare of the caterpillar as she
is in the advancement of the tree or even of its owner.
The caterpillar has as much right to the tree as has the
fruit-grower. A review of biologic time, however, shows
that it was not Nature's intention that one form of life
should predominate at the expense <if another. ISTature
endeavors to maintain an equilibrium between plant and

120

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

animal life. Man, the predominant type, brings to-
gether large areas of the food plants of one insect, and
here this insect finds conditions which favor its rapid
multiplication. Its destructive possibilities become
more apparent when directed against those forms of
plant life from which man gains his sustenance ; and in
order to subsist, man is forced to turn his attention
toward this plant-eating insect. Man has made this
condition possible not only by planting large areas of
one field crop or of fruit trees, but also by removing
the native forests, the homes of the birds, man's friends.
Xot only has he destroyed the homes of the birds, but
too frequently he has also ruthlessly taken their lives.
In discussing our friends and foes, let us subdivide
them from the standpoint of the parties interested,
and so consider them friends and foes of the fruit-
grower, the farmer, the housekeeper, and finally of man

himself.

OF THE FRUIT-GROWER.

The horticulturist is a student of biology, an observer
of the workings of life. The life which the horti-
culturist studies is represented by that invisible stream
of life within twig and leaf. If you would see the
results of his studies, look first at the wild crab and
then at the Winesap, the Gano, the Jonathan. Has he
not studied this life-current well i

A successful fruit-grower must also be able to de-
termine what insects are injurious and what are bene-
ficial. To do this, then, he must know their life history,
and bv that is meant the time of year when the ee'2's

/' ~o

are laid; where they arc laid; when they hatch;
whether they hatch out as caterpillars or in a form

OUR K1MKNDS AM) FOKS

121

FIG. 101. Scale insect (Pulvinaria pruni) on plum twigs. Subsists on the sap, which it
draws out through its slender beak. An insect injurious to horticulture. From a photo-
graph.

122

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

similar to the parent ; what they feed upon and the
time when they mature ; how their food is procured,
whether !>y grasping and chewing with jaws, or by
sucking through a beak. These things he can learn from
books, but he can learn them far better, just as he has
gained his best knowledge in horticulture, by the vigilant
use of his eyes while following his chosen profession.
If the insect, eats the leaves, as caterpillars do, the
successful horticulturist knows that this insect can be
reached by poisonous sprays thrown upon the leaves.
If the insect procures its fond by inserting its beak into
the leaf, the fruit-grower will readily understand that
a poisonous spray will not kill this insect, since it does
not eat the leaf spread with Paris green, but pushes its
beak down through the poison into the leaf and with-
draws its sustenance unharmed.

One of the earliest instances of successfully combat-
ting an insect took place in Sweden. In the time of
Linnaeus the Swedish ship-builders were seriously both-
ered by a borer destroying the ship timbers in their
yards. They applied to Linnaeus for assistance. This
noted naturalist, after Diving the subject of the life
history of the insect careful study, told the ship-
builders that if they would submerge the timbers in
the sea during the month of May they would have no
further trouble from the pest. The naturalist had found
that these borers were the larva 1 or grubs of a beetle
which lays eggs upon the wood only in the month of
~Mi\\. lie readily perceived that if this wood could be
placed where the beetles could not find it during this
month they would be compelled to deposit their eggs
elsewhere. Then when the eggs hatched, the young

OUU FKH.M'S A.\D FOKS

\vuiilil perish for want of proper nourishment. Let us
see if we can apply similar principles to the work in
hand.

Let us take up the insect enemies as we meet them
in the year, and discuss them chierly with a view to
prevention rather than to combatting' them after they
have made their appearance.

Tent Caterpillar. -If the keen-eyed horticulturist will
walk through his orchard during the winter months
when the trees are bare, he will now
and again perceive a twig- that has a
peculiar swelling, and he will see
that the swelling is caused by a
band of small eggs carefully laid
side by side and well covered over
by a waxy substance. These are the
eggs of the apple tent caterpillar, 1
which are ready to hatch with the
first days of spring. The almost
microscopic caterpillars will go out,
ready to feed upon the opening buds.
Xow if the horticulturist will apply
his pruning-knife and remove the
twigs and cast them into the fire, lit'
will have coped very successfully with one of his i
enemies. If, on the contrary, however, he is spending
his time in other pursuits at this winter season, there
will appear early in the spring in his orchard great
clusters of caterpillars well housed in large webs in
the forks of his trees. They will go from this house

FIG. 102. Eggs of apple-
tree tent caterpillar, sur-
rounding an apple IWJK
Drawn from nature, by
Miss M. E. Wise.

1 Clisiocampa americana.

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN IXSECT LIFE

to defoliate his tree and to lessen the fruit crop thereon.
If lie desires to combat them at this time the labor is
much increased: the whole fork must be cut out, or else
the large web with its inhabitants must be brushed away.
1 5ut before this stage has been reached the horticul-
turist has already suffered a loss in foliage destroyed,
a loss which he cannot repair. The trees, if neglected,
are soon stripped of their foliage. The vital powers of
his fruit trees, then, are so greatly taxed that they
usually bear little or no fruit that season.

Canker Worm. 1 As the horticulturist is at work among
his trees about the time the foliage begins to cast a

o o

,

*^^4

FIG. 103. Parents of the spring canker worm : a, female ; b, male (Paleacrita
vernata). Drawn from nature, by Miss M. E. Wise.

shadow, he frequently notes small caterpillars dropping
down by a thread from the disturbed branches of the
trees. A few days later he sees the same trees nearly
stripped of their leaves. If these caterpillars, swinging
in the air by their silken threads, do not alarm him, he
will soon be more emphatically impressed by the defoli-
ated trees. If, however, he is familiar with the life his-

1 Paleacrita vernata is the scientific n;im<> lor spring canker worm. Another
species, Anisopteryx pometaria, appears usually in the fall.

OUR FRIENDS AM) FOES

125

tory of this insect, lie will know that the female is a
windless moth which comes out from her tdbernating-case
early in the spring and ascends the tree to lay her eggs
thereon. If he has been aware of the probable presence
of this female in his orchard, he will have banded his
trees with ropes of hay or paper or cotton. These hands
will have been smeared with printer's ink, coal tar or
pine tar, or some such adhesive substance, which would
have arrested her in her ascent and have held her last
until she perished. Or if he has not done this, the first
caterpillar swinging from its thread will have been to
him a signal for the advance of the spraying-pump.

The Codling Moth. 1 -- Almost every lover of fruit has
seen a wormy apple, and the well-informed know that
the cause of that hole in the apple is a little worm, the
parent of which we call the codling moth. This apple
worm is one of the most serious obstacles in the way of
the profitable production of apples by the average fruit-
grower. From one-fourth to one-half of the apple crop
in the United States is mined annually by this insect.
It may be well, then, to give this important pest grave
attention. It is likely that it was introduced into the
United States from Europe in packages of apples or
pears, and was probably brought over about the middle
of the 18th century. At the present ! ime it is considered
a pest in every section where apple trees are bearing.
It is chiefly distributed by means of the apple, in
which it lives until it is full-fed. In barrels in which
these apples are packed it finds a very suitable place

1 Carpocapsa pomonella.

126

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

for its transformations. From the pupa-case it awakens
to spread depredation wherever fate may have placed it,

The loss due to this apple pest reaches enormous
sums. One year it was estimated that the loss in the
State of Illinois clue to this apple worm amounted to
$L\:5 75,000, or one-half of the average apple crop. An-
other year the insect is said to have caused a loss of
$2,000,000 to the apple crop of Nebraska.

The average annual crop of apples in New York

m^r :- -3,.m

"- I **

FIG. 104. Some codling moths natural size. After photograph by M. V.
Slingerland.

amounts to about 5,000,000 barrels: at $1.50 per
barrel this would amount to $7,500,000. Although
New York fruit-growers are fighting this insect, with
modern methods, it is estimated that the wormy apples
amount to about one-third of the total crop ; or in other
words, New York apple-growers pay an annual tribute
for the ravages of this pest of about $2,500,000 worth
of apples. To this must bo added at least $500,000
worth of pears. This makes a total tax which is to be
borne by the fruit-growers of New York amounting to
$3,000,000.

This insect's food consists largely of apples, wild

OUR FRIENDS AND FOF.S

127

Laws, crab apples, and quinces. It also shows a decided
taste for pears, and has been found upon peaches, apri-
cots, and cherries.

Comparatively few frn it-growers, doubtless, are ac-
quainted with the parent moth. The insect is about an
inch in wing expanse, and has brown-colored front
wings with lighter brown-colored hind wings. It might

FIG. 105. A pear and two apples. The petals have fallen. The calyx lobes
are still widely spread. Just the right time to spray. After photograph by M. V.
Slingerland.

be well here to enter somewhat into the life history of
the codling moth, in order that the stages through which
this insect passes may be more fully understood. The
egg is laid upon the side of the apple, like a minute
drop of milk adhering to the skin of the fruit. It has
frequently been supposed that it is always laid upon
the fruit itself; this is not the case, as investigations

128

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

have shown that the eggs have been laid upon the twigs
as well as upon the apple. In a few clays, dependent
11 pun the character of the weather, the egg hatches, and
I lie young worm seeks its first meal. It wanders about
npon the surface of the apple until it finds some an-
gular place like the blossom end, or where a leaf of the
tree touches the surface of the apple. Generally the
worm crowds in between two of the calyx lobes, and
gels its first meal within the little cavity at the blossom
end. Note the fact that in the majority of cases this
little worm gets its first meal in the blossom end of the
apple. And here it spends several days feeding around
in the calyx cavity before it mines to the center of the
apple. These first few days of the apple worm's life,
which are usually spent in feeding in the blossom end
of the apple, have proven to be the most vulnerable
phase in the life of the insect, It is during this time
that, it can be killed by the poisonous spray to be spoken
of later.

You are all familiar with the appearance of the
worm-hole in the apple and the bits of brown dust
around the margins of the hole. When the caterpillar
is ready to leave the fruit it pushes away this dust,
and crawls out, leaving the open worm-hole; when one
has a wormy apple in hand, it can be easily told by
the absence or presence of these pellets of dust whether
the worm is still within the apple or not. If the fruit
has fallen to the ground, the caterpillar proceeds to
crawl to some secure and suitable place in which to
make preparations for becoming a moth. It seeks a suit-
able place to spin its cocoon, in which to undergo its
further transformations. Some go to trunks, large

OUR FRIENDS AND FOES

129

branches, or into the crotches of trees, to pnpate undrr
the rough, loose bark. Others seek quarters in near-by
fences or piles of rubbish.

If the worms are carried in the apples into the store-
room, or packed with the fruit when it is picked, they
spin their cocoons, after leaving the fruit, in the crev-
ices and angles of the barrels, or in any secure portion

FIG. 106. A pear and two apples. The calyx lobes are closing up, especially
on right-hand apple. Almost too late to spray effectively. After photograph by
M. V. Slingerland.

of the store-room. The first brood generally attains the
adult stage about the first of July. This brood coming
out at this time is ready to lay eggs which will in turn
hatch and attack the apples still remaining upon the
tree. The insect is two-brooded in the United States.
The worms of this second brood enter the fruit not so
frequently at the blossom end. They generally enter
on the side, making a spot which greatly disfigures the
fruit.

A word about the habits of the parent moth. It is
9

130 ELEMENTARY STUDIES IX IXSECT LIFE

nocturnal in its habits. Unlike many other moths, the
codling moth is not attracted to the light. This has been
shown many times by experiments with lanterns. ^N'>r
is it attracted to baits of any kind. How then can this
insect be overcome? Since the codling moth cannot be
taken at lights or by traps, the only possible means
of destroying it in the adult stage is by keeping the fruit
cellars screened in the early spring, so that the emerging
moths may be prevented from escaping until they are
captured within the cellar and killed. Xo satisfactory
way has presented itself for the destruction of the eggs.
.V few of the pupa-cases may be found and destroyed,
but it appears that the chief and surest remedy lies in
attacking the young apple worms.

Many experiments have shown that spraying is the
most effective means of ridding the orchards of the pest.

First of all and by all means secure a first-class spray-
ing-pump. Time and money used in working with a
home-made device or cheap spraying-pump is worse than
wasted. Get the best spraying-pump the market affords,
and your work will be more than repaid. Having se-
cured a pump, use a mixture of Paris green in accord-
ance with the formula given on page 303.

The time to sprav is a few davs after the blossoms

I

have fallen and before the calyx leaves have begun
to close up. (Fig. 105.) The object of the spray is
not to water the leaves nor the sides of the apple. The
idea in the mind of the sprayer is to fill the little cup
at the rose end of the young apple with this fluid. This
can be done only while the calyx leaves are yet open.
From this you will see that different varieties of apples
will require to be sprayed at different times. If

OUR FRIEXDS AM) FOES

131

you will review in your mind what has been said, von
will see that when these cups ar the blossom end have
been filled with this poisonous fluid the water will
evaporate and leave the particles of poison therein to
be eaten by the young' caterpillar at his first meal, and.
consequently, at his last meal. This is the secret of
combatting the codling 1 moth successfully. If you rid
your orchard of the first brood it will be evident that
there will be no second brood. Having 1 neglected this,
however, the second brood can onlv be destroyed bv

t' .-

shaking the tree and gathering and destroying the wormy
apples.

The Honey-Bee.- -The above are some of the more in-
jurious insects met. by the horticulturist. Xo\v let us
note his friends of this class. Xot the least among these
is the honey-bee, which visits his orchard-, his vine-
yards, his strawberries, blackberrie-. and raspberries,
and brings about greater results than is generally cred-
ited. It was formerly supposed that plants fertilized
themselves, but it has been more recently shown that
many plants are so constructed as to prevent self-fertili-
zation ; or, in other words, plant life, like animal life,
will " run out, 1 ' as we term it, by in-and-in breeding.
And nature has so constructed the plant itself that it
is impossible in some cases for the pollen of its own
anthers to fall upon the stigma of its own ovary. In
other cases the stigma is sterile to the pollen from its
own anthers but t'< rtile to pollen brought from other
flowers of the same species. It is the intention of nature
that the insect shall bring from another flower of the
same kind, pollen which shall fall upon the stigma and

132

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

fertilize the ovules, thus keeping the breed strong and
healthy. (See pages 95, 96.)

Fruit-growers are known to object to the presence of
bees in their locality, because they think the bees destroy
grapes, peaches and other fruits by breaking the skin
and sucking the juices. The Department of Agriculture
at Washington has given this matter a thorough test
by placing hives of bees in a large closed house ; here
these bees had no opportunity to secure food of any kind.
In this house where those starving bees were kept there
were hung all varieties of fruits, such as grapes, peaches,
apples, plums, nectarines, and many other classes of
fruits. Observers were placed beside each kind of
fruit to notice the action of the bees thereon. It was
universally noted that not a bee was observed endeavor-
ing to cut into any variety of fruit, regardless of the
delicacy of the skin ; but when the skin was broken by
decay or bruise, or any similar cause, the bees naturally
inserted their tongues and lapped up the escaping
juices.

Wasps. The horticulturist has many friends within
this one order to which the bees belong. There is a
great variety of that class of wasps which are known as
" mud-daubers " and the like, whose silent work in
killing caterpillars and carrying them away as provi-
sion for their young is of inestimable value to the
horticulturist.

Parasitic Insects. Then there are those of the bee
family which we speak of as parasitic Hymenoptera.
These insects lay their eggs upon the backs of cater-
pillars ; the young from these eggs attack the cater-

OUK FRIENDS A.N'I) FOES 133

pillars and kill them. The caterpillars become a " peri-
patetic banqueting-hall for unbidden guests." Then
there are others of this same group which lay eggs
among the eggs of injurious insects such as the codling
moth, and as their eggs hatch the young larva? sustain
themselves upon the eggs of these injurious forms. Of
these Hymenoptera there are no less than four that
prey upon the codling moth.

The insect friends of the horticulturist are classed
under three heads : as pollenizers, as parasites upon in-
jurious forms, and as predaceous insects preying upon
injurious forms. The bee was an example of the first,
the ichneumon fly of the second, and chief among the
third might be mentioned the ladybirds or ladybugs,
about which there is the rhyme,

"Ladybird, ladybird, fly away home :
Your house is on fire, your children will roam."

Predaceous Insects. - These bright red beetles with
black spots on their backs are preeminently the friends
of the horticulturist. The
little immature forms known
as grubs or larva? spend their
time in eating up plant-lice,
scale insects, and many other
injurious forms. The adult
beetle is no less active. The

most remarkable case on rec- ^ 107 - "L^yw.i" and larva,

Coccinella abdominalis.

ord of the beneficial results

derived from a single insect is that of a member of
this group of ladybirds. A few years ago the
citrus or orange industries of California were al-

134 ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

most destroyed. It had come to be considered that
the culture of oranges would have to be suspended,
owing to the highly destructive work of a certain
white scale known as the fluted scale. It was found
that the native home of this scale was in Aus-
tralia. It was observed that in Australia a certain
one of these ladybirds subsisted exclusively upon this
white scale. A force of men captured a large number
of the ladybirds, brought them to California, and
distributed them among the orange groves. The
result was that in a few years the scale had almost en-
tirely disappeared, and to-day it can be found only in
very limited numbers in any place in the State. This
condition of affairs is due wholly to the active and per-
sistent work of this little ladybird. Xot only has this
same insect made orange industries profitable in Cali-
fornia, but it has been introduced into Portugal, where
it is doing equally good work for the orange groves of
that country.

Then there are those beetles which we commonly
call ground-beetles (p. 277), always to be found on the
ground, some of them of good size and some of them of
smaller sizes. They spend much of their time digging
about for the eggs of injurious insects, and many of them
subsist almost exclusively upon the grubs of injurious
forms. Frequently one of these allies meets its death
under the foot of some horticulturist who erroneously
believes it to be an enemy.

OF THE FAEMER.

Farm products are not exempt from the presence of
insects both beneficial and injurious. Should the

on; ] KM KM is AND KOKS

135

farmer devote his attention to the production of wheat,
just before he is ready to garner it he finds that cer-
tain insects harvest a quota proportionate to their

FIG. 108. Ear of corn, showing holes made in kernels by larvae of AngoumoiH
grain moth, Gelechia oerealella. From photograph.

numbers. Chief among these is the chinch-bug, iti
small dark-colored insect with light-colored wings.

The Chinch-Bug. - Kach female chinch-bug lays about
500 eggs promiscuously on the ground early in the
spring. These soon hatch as little red, spider-like
forms, and seek their nourishment from surrounding
plants. They do not eat the stalk, but insert the beak
and withdraw the life-juices of the plant, causing il
to dry up prematurely. In about six weeks these young
red insects arc mature, and ready to reproduce their
kind. It is this second brood that sometimes make-
sad havoc in the grain-fields of the farmer. The (pics
tion then is, What means of defense are at the disposal
of the farmer? lie has not manv insect allies to aid

him in the reduction of this insect. There are certain
contagious diseases which break out under certain cli-
matic conditions. These conditions are obtained when
the weather continues warm and moist. When these
conditions prevail and the chinch-bugs are numerous,
great numbers of them will die in a short -pace of time
from contagious diseases. When, however, the weather

136

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

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OUK FRIENDS AND FOES

137

is hot and dry, conditions naturally favorable to the
increase of bugs, the farmer must rely upon artificial
barriers. Ridges covered with tar or similar adhesive
substances placed through the field prevent, the insects'
advance into new territory, since during their most
destructive period they are wingless and must proceed
by traveling along the ground. Post-holes placed at in-
tervals along the side of this ridge will trap great num-
bers of these invading insects. (Fig. 109.) Clean,
careful farming, gathering rubbish and burning the
same in the fall will remove opportunities for the adult
insects to hibernate in security. When this is done
many will not live to reproduce their kind the follow-
ing season.

Grasshoppers.- -These frequently cause great destruc-
tion to cultivated crops. The most noted among the
destructive forms in this country is the Rocky Mountain
locust. This insect eludes all effective means of de-
fense, since it is migratory, and appears in hordes with-
out previous warning.

There are, however, many native forms which live
and die near the place of birth. These the agriculturist
can readily dispose of. The life history of one of these
has already been studied. It has been observed that
they spend the winter in the egg stage in pods, about
one hundred in number, about an inch below the surface
of the soil. It is evident that if these eggs are destroyed,
no grasshoppers will appear to injure vegetation. This
should then be the first point of attack. In the fall the
female lays about 100 eggs, in a hole made by herself
and extending an inch or so beneath the surface of the

138 KLEMKXTARY STTDIES IX IXSECT LIFE

ground. As the female grasshopper lays the eggs, slie
places an impervious glutinous coating around them.
This glutinous material hinds the eggs together and
surrounds them so as to form a water-proof pod molded
to the shape of the hole which the insect has made. If
the ground is disturbed in the spring these egg-pods
will be broken up, exposed to the sun and rain, to sud-
den changes in the weather, to birds, and to other insects.
All of these conditions are highly injurious to the life
of the embryonic grasshopper, and few of these insects

FIG. 110. A beneficial insect. Praying mantis (Mantis religiosa) eating live
grasshopper which it has captured with its strong, spined fore legs natural size.
Photographed from life by M. V. Slingerland.

will hatch on ground thus treated. If the ground is not
disturbed the eggs protected from the winter snows and
spring rains by this water-proof coating will hatch;
and as small nymphs the young insects will find their
way to the surface to begin their work of devastation.

(I i; i-'lMEM)S AND FOES

139

How can we disturb this soil in which the females
have placed their eggs? If the ground is to be plowed
in the spring this will suffice, but in the case of meadow
lands and pastures this cannot be dune. In the case of
alfalfa, a meadow crop, it has been found that if this

FIG. 111. Beneficial mite. Red mite (Trombtdium locust arum), an fstrrnal
parasite on membrane of wing of grasshopper, impairing powers of flight. Greatly
enlarged.

crop be harrowed in the early spring with a disk har-
row, the process greatly increases the growth of the
plant, in both root and stalk. This results in a much
larger yield of forage. This plant, by reason of its
early spring growth, furnishes nourishment for I he
emerging grasshoppers at a time when, if they had to
hop far for succulent food, many of them would prrNi.
So, fields which have grown this alfalfa crop year after

140

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

year on undisturbed soil are favorably placed for the
increase of these native grasshoppers. There is in the
undisturbed alfalfa meadow an opportunity for the
quiet hibernation of the egg and the proper nourish-
ment for the young insect. Life under such conditions
is free from many of the contingencies which arise
in the struggle for existence. Here these insects will
be found in undue numbers until they have by con-
tinuous defoliation destroyed their means of support,
the alfalfa ; or until the farmer has interfered and
removed them.

FIG. 112. Plan for hopperdozer.

It may not be possible to destroy all eggs by harrow-
ing and plowing. To insure the destruction of such
grasshoppers as may hatch, a machine called the " hop-
perdozer " is used. This consists of two shallow pans
about four feet long, two feet wide and eight inches
deep, placed on wooden runners corresponding in
height to the crop. At the back of these pans there

OUE FKIENDS AND FOES

should be placed, upright, a sheet-iron or canvas back.
This back should be about three feet high. Its purpose
is to prevent the insects flying over the pans. When
the machine is ready for use, place two buckets of
water and half a gallon of coal oil in each pan, hitch
one horse to each of the outside runners of the hopper-
dozer, and then drive back and forth across the field
where the grasshoppers are either entering or are at
work. As fast as the insects fill the pans, remove, and
replenish with oil and water. This cheap and effective
mixture of coal oil and water proves deadly to insect
life. Where grasshoppers are troublesome, if the
farmer will either plow or harrow his land in the
early spring, and then in the summer will kill by
means of the hopperdozer those that he did not destroy
in the egg stage, he will practically destroy all the
insects of this kind upon his farm.

The Army Worm. There is an insect which occa-
sionally appears in great numbers in the caterpillar
stage. When in quest of food these larvte are wont to
move in one general direction, eating all vegetation as
they go. From these habits this insect frequently gets
the name of the " army worm." 1 These insects occur
every year, but not always in numbers sufficient to at-
tract general attention. Sometimes, however, the num-
ber of eggs deposited early in the season becomes very
great, and the larvae hatched therefrom become so
numerous that they are forced to travel in order to
obtain food. Their traveling, rolling and piling one
over another is not instinctive, but is simply a condition
brought about by reason of their great numbers. When

sp.

142 ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

the brood is few in ninnlior the larva finds, without
much moving- about, sufficient nourishment to satisfy it.
When the brood is large, as is sometimes the case, the
caterpillars are forced to travel in order to satisfy their
natural cravings for food.

These insects are two-brooded. The second or mid-
summer brood is the one which furnishes the largest
army of worms. Some of this midsummer brood
emerge before winter to lay eggs, and others pass the
winter in the pupal stage. It is probable that the ma-
jority of these insects spend the winter in the larval or
pupal state. If the ground is stirred by plowing or
harrowing in the early spring, it is evident that the
majority of the hibernating larva? and
pupa' will be destroyed. Mechanical
means, such as the cutting down of the
crop on the edge of the field where the
caterpillars are entering, and destroying
this crop by fire, are effective, since the
larva 1 are burned with the crop. The

FIG. 113. Thepo- .

tato beetle (Dory- march oi this enemy can sometimes be

phora 10-lineata). ( .}^}^] j )y p l mv i n g a furi'OW aCl'OSS its

front and dragging a log back and forth through the
furrow, crushing the insects as they crawl into the
furrow.

The Potato Beetle. An insect which has been of great
importance in connection with potato culture is the
well-known potato beetle, 1 ten-line beetle, or Colorado
beetle. This insect passes the winter in the adult or
pupal stage, and comes forth in the early spring to

^Doryphora 10-lineata

OUR FRIENDS AND FOKS

143

attack plants such as the potato as soon as these plants
appear above-ground. Upon these they lay egg's which
bring forth reddish, sing-like larv;r. This brood of
larvne is the one which frequently defoliates the first
crop of potatoes. Before the application of arsenites
was fully understood, the potato beetle was an enemy
of considerable importance. In those days the only
means of ridding the potato patch was by hand-picking
the eggs and insects. With a more complete knowledge
of insecticides, however, we find little or no difficulty
in treating the potato plants by spraying with Paris
green one pound, freshly slaked lime one pound, water
100 gallons.

Squash-Bug. -In garden crops the squash-bug and
the cabbage worm are frequently injurious. The
squash-bug 1 attacks and causes
considerable injury to the vines
of the cucumber. This dull,
grayish-brown insect belongs to
the order Hemiptera, suborder
lleteroptera, and therefore has
sucking mouth-parts. The punc-
ture made b the beak of this

insect when feeding seems to be FIO.IU. squash-bug

tristis). Drawn from nature, by

peculiarly poisonous, especially MISS M. E. wise. x2.
to young vines. The insect spends the winter as an adult,
and in the spring lays its golden-brown eggs upon the
vines of the squash or cucumber family. These insects.
as has been previously said, secure nourishment from
within the plant, and therefore cannot be poisoned by ar-

Mstis.

144 ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

senites. They can, however, be reached by what we speak
of as contact poisons, the best of which is kerosene emul-
sion. (For directions for making, see page 305.) This
spray is a contact poison, since it kills the insect by com-
ing in contact with its body, and not by entering the ali-
mentary canal as is the case with arsenical poisons.
Since these insects spend the winter in the adult stage in
rubbish left about the garden plots or fields where vines
of this family are cultivated, all such refuse allowed to
remain favors their hibernation. In the fall, then, all
vines and rubbish about garden plots should be raked up
and burned, and in so doing many of the insects will
doubtless be destroyed at the same time.

The Cabbage-Worm. 1 - -Farmers who are engaged in
the production of cabbage for market, as well as those

Fia. 115. Cabbage butterfly (Picris rapce), parent of the
cabbage-worm. Drawn from nature, by Miss M. E. Wise.

who raise only for home consumption, find considerable
difficulty with the small greenish worm known as the
cabbage-worm. The parents of this cabbage-worm
were brought from Europe. They are about one and
one-half inches in wing expanse, white or creamy white
in color. The male has a single black spot in the fore

rapce.

OUR FRIENDS AND FOES

wing and the female two black spots in the fore wing.
The points of the fore wings are also black. The under
side of the wing is usually darker. These butterflies
are to be seen in the early spring. They spend the
winter in the pupal stage. They lay their eggs gener-
ally upon sonic one of the plants that belong to the
mustard family. These eggs hatch and the insects
come to maturity in time to lay their eggs upon the
early cabbage plants. Their presence is soon told by
the ugly holes which appear in the outer leaves of the
growing cabbage plant. Tin- caterpillars themselves
show their protective characteristics in a marked degree,
in that when feeding upon the cabbage leaves they re-
semble the leaf so nearly in color and lie so closely to
the plant tis-ue that they are easily overlooked. They
can he destroyed, however, by the arsenical spray de-
scribed on page 303. This is an effective remedy, and
can be applied in the spring without fear of the poison
remaining there to endanger the lives of persons who will
later eat the cabbage, if applied before the cabbage-head

has formed.

Some Beneficial Insects.- -These are some of the prin-
cipal insect enemies of the farmer. lie, like the fruit-
grower, has friends among the insects, and these friends
are of the same general character as those of the fruit-
grower, viz., destroyers of noxious insects, by preying
upon them, by being parasitic upon such injurious
forms, and as pollenizers of the various crops. In addi-
tion, certain other insects are beneficial in that they eat
and therefore destroy certain noxious plants. An illus-
tration of beneficial results derived from the predaccous
10

146

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

and parasitic insects may be taken from the fact that
the army worm rarely appears in considerable numbers
two seasons in succession, showing that these enemies
severely check its increase. There are a number of
flies somewhat similar in appearance to our common

FIG. 116. Different stages in transformation of parasitic fly (Sarcophaga sp.) :
J, 2, 3, 4, white maggot in active stage ; 5, maggot beginning to pupate dirty white
in color, pupa-case light brown ; C, 7, fully developed pupa-case of two species. X 5.

house-fly. These flies are parasitic upon grasshoppers,
and aid in keeping the grasshoppers in check. Some
of these flies are illustrated in Figures 117 and 171.
In regard to pollination of crops, reference has already
been made to the fact that the honey-bee materially in-
creases the yield of the alfalfa plant. (See page 107.)
It is known that the bumblebee is very influential in
bringing about the proper fertilization of the common
red-clover blossom. However, injurious insects, such as
the grasshopper, may not be looked upon as wholly in-
jurious, since they frequently furnish food for the
farmer's poultry. High-class farm culture tends to re-
duce the numbers of injurious forms, and at the same

OUR FRIENDS AND FOES

147

FIG. 117. A fly, parasitic on
grasshoppers. Enlarged.

time gives better crop yields. The work of destructive
insects is not a total loss, since the part of the crop left
will bring 1 a price somewhat
higher than if the whole crop
had been placed upon the
market. This is in the case
of a general devastation by
insects. From this stand-
point neither the individual
who lost his crop nor the
State that lost its crop would
be benefittedj but the individ-
ual or State that harvested a
part or all of the crop would be benefitted by the rise in
price caused by its scarcity, this scarcity being due to
the work of injurious insects.

OF THE HOUSEKEEPER.

The House-Fly. Among insects, probably the one
causing most general annoyance to the housekeeper is
the house-fly. There are several species which are given
this name, but the one most abundant is that known to
science as Musca domestica. It is the ordinary grayish
fly, with mouth-parts separate at the tip for sucking
up liquid substances. It is not within the power of
this specie? to pierce the cuticle. There is, however,
an opinion prevalent that it can bite. This is not due
to any of its actions, but to the resemblance of another
fly, sometimes found in the house, a fly known as the
stable-fly. 1 This stable-fly is probably next in point of

^Stomoxys calcitrans.

148 ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

abundance to the house-fly in most portions of the
United States. The greatest structural difference be-
tween the two is that the stable-fly has mouth-parts
adapted for piercing the skin. The house-fly has no
piercing organs in its proboscis.

The common house-fly breeds in fresh horse-manure,
from which during the warm weather the generations
emerge in quick succession. It is well, then, to prevent
the prevalence and avoid the annoyances arising from
the presence of this insect by seeing that all stables in
the vicinity are kept perfectly clean, and the sweep-
ings therefrom promptly removed or well covered with
lime. As is well known, these insects can be practically
excluded from the home by means of wire mosquito
netting over the doors and windows.

The house-fly has a number of natural enemies, some
being hymenopterous parasites, others being predatory
beetles. The enemy which most effectually reduces
the house-fly, however, is a fungous disease character-
ized by the whitish swelled abdomen of the dead insect.
This disease does not generally become epidemic until
late in the season.

The Buffalo Moth. - In some parts of our country the
buffalo moth : or carpet beetle creates considerable dam-
age among woolen goods. Like many of I lie common
names given insects, the term " buffalo moth '" is mis-
leading. This buffalo moth is not a moth, but belongs to
the Coleoptera. In the summer and fall these insects are
the most active, but in well-heated houses they may work
throughout the year. The adult insect is a broad oval

l Anthrenus sj>.

OUR FKIEXDS AXD FOES

149

beetle ( Fig. 110), three-sixteenths of an inch long, with
a brick-red invgulur stripe down the middle of the body.
The wing-covers are black, but covered with minute
whitish scales which give them a marbled black ap-
pearance. The beetle itself is a day liver, and feeds

FIG. 118. Buffalo moth larva. FIG. lin. B-iffalo moth beetle (Ar>-

This is the stage in which the in- threnus scrophulariae). Drawn from

sects cut carpets, woolen goods, nature, by Miss M. E. Wise,

etc. Drawn from nature, by Miss
M. E. Wise.

upon flowers such as the golden rod. The insect itself
is not troublesome to the housekeeper. It enters her
house to lay eggs in crevices or in the vicinity of
woolen goods. TlicM 1 eirgs hatch as reddish brown,
hairy, oblong forms, which apparently have no head or
feet. (Fig. 118.) The feet and head, however, are
fairly well concealed beneath the bristly covering. The
larva- have mouth-parts well developed for chewing. It
is in this larval stage that the cutting of carpets and
other woolens takes place. This in-ect is one of the
most troublesome household pests to be found in the
United States. Whenever a house 1 becomes badly in-
fested it frequently is necessary to abandon the use of

150

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

carpets for a time and use rugs in their stead. These
rugs will require frequent exposure to the sun. Where
the insects are quite general the carpets should be taken
up, thoroughly beaten, and carried out of doors, sprayed
with benzine, and allowed to air for several hours.
The benzine is a very volatile substance and highly in-
flammable, so that due care should be taken to keep
away from lighted substances while this work is being
carried on. The rooms themselves should be thor-
oughly swept and dusted, and the floors should be
washed with hot water.

Tne Clothes Moth. A destructive insect among furs
and w r oolen fabrics is the well-known little clothes moth. 1
Fur and woolen garments are its favorites. In its at-
tacks upon these, possibly it has become the most gen-
erally known household pest. It does not confine its
attacks to the home alone, but is likewise to be found
in the dry -goods store. The moth is a little buff-colored
lepidopteron, being about three-quarters of an inch in
wing expanse. These moths in themselves are harmless.
Like the buffalo moth, however, the larva or caterpillar
is the one which commits the depredation. In the North
there is but one annual generation, the adults appear-
ing from June to August ; in the South we find there
are tw r o or even more broods annually.

K

The larva is a dull-white caterpillar, and is never
seen away from its movable case. (Fig. 120.) The
construction of this case is its first task. If it, desires
to change its position it thrusts out its head and thorax,
and by means of its thoracic leg drags itself to the de-

1 Tinea pellionella.

OUR FRIENDS AND FOES

151

sired location. As the larva grows it finds it necessary
to enlarge its case both in length and circumference.
The wav it does this is rather interesting. Without

<u

bursting its case the larva makes a slit half-way down
one side, and inserts a triangular gore of new material.

FIG. 120. Larvre of clothes moth feeding on felt. Photographed from life.

A similar insertion is made on the opposite side.
The larva revolves itself without leaving the case,
and makes corresponding slits and additions in the
other half. It lengthens its case by adding to either
end. In appearances the case looks like a matted mass
of wool. If the interior be examined it will be found
to be lined with soft white silk. If the larva is trans-
ferred from time to time to fabrics of different colors,
the cases .may be made to assume as varied a pattern
as one desires. The varied colors will illustrate the
peculiar methods of enlarging just described. The fully
developed larva about to pupate attaches itself by silken
threads to the garment upon which it has been feeding.

t>>

152 ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

or to some object near by. It emerges as a moth about
three weeks later. The moth flies in an irregular man-
ner, but can run well over clothing w T hen disturbed.
The moth prefers darkness, and successfully conceals
itself in dark folds of the garments or in crevices when
disturbed.

Unfortunately, there is no good method of prevent-
ing the damage done by these insects. Constant vigi-
lance and frequent inspection are demanded whenever
these insects become troublesome. The various repel-
lents, such as camphor, moth-balls, tobacco, etc., are of
little value if the garments are alreadv stocked with

o v

eggs, since these will hatch and mature regardless of
the odor. The moths, however, are repelled from de-
positing their eggs while these odors are strong. But
if the moths are inclosed with garments protected by
these repellents they will naturally lay their eggs and
the destructive work of the larva will soon begin. The
remedy which seems to be the most satisfactory, though
attended by a good deal of trouble, is to sun and brush
thoroughly all winter clothing, then place away in large
boxes such as tailors use, and seal the boxes up by
gumming a strip of wrapping-paper around the edges
so that the boxes will be completely sealed up and leave
no cracks. In this way the insect is denied entrance,
and therefore no damage is done.

The Cockroach. - - Then there is the wary and trouble-
some cockroach. So well known are they as to make
a description unnecessary. Various poisons, such as
phosphorus paste spread on cardboard and placed in
the runways of the roaches, have been used with fair

on; KiMKxns AND FOES

153

success. Wherever the apartments infested are small

and can be tightly closed, these insects can be killed by

fumigation with carbon bisulphide,

a volatile and highly inflammable

substance. Therefore great care

must be taken to keep lighted

matches away from its gases. FlG - 121 - E sg-P d of

cockroach.

Place the substance upon pans in

the room, and then close the room and the substance will
evaporate. If used in sufficient quantities this carbon
bisulphide will kill the insects. It is very necessary,
however, that the mom be made tight, in order that none
of the gas may escape. It requires a strong gas to kill
the insects.

House Ants. Another form which proves troublesome
in the cupboard and on the pastry shelves is the ant,
and of these there are a number of species which fre-
quently prove troublesome to the housekeeper. Carbon
bisulphide poured upon the hole from which they emerge,
this is the entrance to their nesting-place, will effect-
ually free the house of them. If, however, their nests
cannot be found, it becomes necessary to destroy them
whenever they are found in the house. This can be
done by placing large sponges in situations where the
insects are most numerous; these sponges, being sat-
urated with sweetened water, will collect the ants in
great numbers. The sponges <-i\\\ be placed in hot water
several times a day, thus killing the ants.

154

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

OF MAN IN GENERAL.

While the foregoing insects indirectly affect man
himself, there are some which directly have to do with
his comfort or discomfort. There are very few habita-
ble regions where man is not personally subject to
more or less annoyance from insects. In this part of
the world we at once think of mosquitoes.

The Mosquito. - The eggs of the mosquito are depos-

FIG. 122. Mosquito ( Culex pungens) In process of development : Egg mass
above ; two eggs, much enlarged, just below ; young larvte, enlarged, below. Three
of these are represented as at the surface of the water breathing through the caudal
tube or trachea. (After Howard.)

ited in small boat-shaped masses, and the young hatch-
ing from these escape into the water. We frequently
find the half-empty rain-barrel well supplied with these
larvae, commonly called " wigglers." These move about

OUK FEIENDS AND FOES

155

by a jerky motion, ascending' at times to the surface
for a supply of air. This they take in through a slen-
der tube at the caudal end of the body. The pupa,'
are active, and can readily be distinguished from the
larva?. The head of the larva or wiggler is not natu-
rally large. The pupal head has the feet and developing

Fio. 123. Full-grown mosquito larva on left. Pupa on right. Much enlarged.
(After Howard.)

wings folded around it, so that the pupa is quite easily
distinguished from the larva by the size of its head.
This distinction can be made as the insects are observed
in the water in the basin in which they have been col-

156 ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

lected. The pupa takes air through a spiracle near the
head. When the insect is ready to emerge, the pupa rests
at the surface of the water, the dorsal portion of t he-
body slightly out of the water. The pupal case splits,
and the mosquito draws out first the fore legs, which are
placed on the water to serve as a support while the rest
of the body is withdrawn. The wings expand quickly,

FIG. 124. Mosquito (Culex pungens), female. (After Howard )

and the insect flies away. The pupal case serves as a raft
upon which the insect floats momentarily while the
wings are drying. Should there be a brisk wind at this
moment, the insect will be blown from its raft and
drowned. This is not an infrequent calamity in the
life history of the mosquito.

In the matter of remedies we are all familiar with the
use of mosquito netting over doors and windows of
dwellings. The best means of dealing with the mos-
quito are preventive. Rain-barrels should be kept se-
curely covered. A rain-barrel allowed to stand open
with sufficient dregs will furnish a breeding-place for
enough mosquitoes to torment a household. There
are three principal remedies : standing pools can be
drained ; ponds can be well stocked with fish ; or kero-

OUR FRIENDS AND FOES

157

sene, about one ounce to fifteen square feet of water,
can be poured over pools of water which cannot be read-
ily drained. If the ponds are drained the breeding-
places are ruined. If fish are introduced they feed
upon the larva 1 and pupa\ If the surface of the water
is given a coating of kerosene, the pupsr, as they come to

FIG. 125. Mosquito (Culex pungens), male. (After Howard.)

the surface to emerge, will be killed, and the female
depositing her eggs on the surface will come in contact
with the kerosene. This will destroy her before she has
had an opportunity to deposit her eggs. These are three
effective remedies. The one best suited to the occasion
can be chosen.

Mosquitoes are looked upon as annoying only in so far
as they directly disturb man. There are good reasons
for believing that mosquitoes may act as disseminators
of disease. It has been partly proven that mosquitoes

158

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

breeding and living in the swamps introduce into the
human body with the insertion of their beaks that which
brings on malarial fever in the person bitten. Insects
as carriers of disease is a subject only coming to be
understood and studied. Bites of the horse-fly l and the
stable-fly 2 have developed into grievous pustules, show-
ing germs of anthrax, a malignant contagious disease,
transmissible from cattle to man and from man to
cattle. Insects which frequent or breed in decaying
animal or vegetable matter should certainly be kept
from contact with man and his food.

This phase of insect injury is to be classed as of
the greatest importance, and is a subject which deserves
the notice and attention of every one who cares for
cleanliness and health.

Beneficial Insects. - - Insects are not wholly injurious
when viewed from the standpoint of man. As scaven-
gers they render humanity invaluable service. The
services of certain insects in doing away with and
rendering harmless dead matter of both plant and ani-
mal origin are inestimable. Linnivus, the great nat-
uralist, stated that the offspring of three blow-flies
would destroy the carcass of a horse as quickly as would
a lion. This statement may be somewhat exaggerated,
yet it serves to illustrate the good offices of insects.
Certainly the offspring of the blow-fly would leave the
carcass of the horse in a much less offensive condition
than would the lion. Large groups of insects play an
important part in cleaning up and removing decaying
matter which, if allowed to remain, would certainly

l Tabanus. "Stomoxys.

FRIENDS AND FOES

159

prove detrimental to health as well as highly offensive
to the senses.

Insects are further valuable to man in that they
furnish food. Chief among the insect foods used by
man may be cited honey from the honey-bee, a nota-
ble article of food upon which is based a great and
world-wide industry. Manv insects furnish food for

/ *J

poultry, fish, and song-birds ; being therefore indirectly
beneficial to man.

In the matter of clothing it- is well to know that our
silk is derived win illy from insects. The delicate silken
fiber of which the cocoons of the silk-worm are made,
is the crude material from which the silk of commerce
is manufactured.

The cochineal dyes, formerly so greatly used, are in-
sect products. Shellac and Chinese white wax are like-
wise products of insects.

These are some of the principal relations which exist
between man and insects. Man is the dominant type,
and his appearance directly or remotely changes the
whole train of natural laws. We can readily see the
sequence in the statement of Wallace, that the more old
maids the more abundant the clover-seed crop, for the
maids protect the cats which kill the mice which rid the
nests of bumblebees which fertilize the clover-seeds.

In our study of injurious and beneficial forms it be-
comes essential that we acquaint ourselves with the life
histories of the insects which affect us either beneficiallv

/

or otherwise, in order that if a check need lie made, we
may be aware of the most vulnerable point of the inju-
rious insect. We should likewise become acquainted

160 ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

with the structure and feeding habits of the insect. If
the injurious insect has mandibles and masticates its
food, it can then be reached by poisoned baits, or by
poisonous sprays thrown upon its food plants. If the
injurious form procures its food through a sucking-
tube, we then must use contact poisons, those which
destroy the insect by coining in contact with its body.
We should likewise become acquainted with our friends
in the insect tribe, in order that we may at all times
favor those which favor us. This whole subject is in-
cluded under the head of economic entomology a
phase of the study inviting to young students.

In this study there should be at all times an attempt
to reach the proper point of view ; that is, the causes
and effects. For instance, the short-sighted fruit-
grower is sometimes prone to overestimate the evils at-
tending his vocation; some are wont to recall the "good
old times " when none of these pests existed. These
fruit-growers forget that in those times there were no
orchards, and that the apple industry was represented by
a few seedling trees growing about the pioneers' log
cabins. The farmer likewise sometimes becomes discon-
solate by reason of the unexpected attacks of an invading
insect horde. There is behind these attacks some cause.
The farmer has probably continued to raise throughout
a series of years, upon the same ground, the food plant
of the invading insect. Had there been frequent rota-
tion of crops this state of affairs would have been
avoided. In reulitv, then, the agriculturist himself

t^ / O

is at fault for the undue prevalence of the injuring
forms. If flies become exceedingly troublesome around

OUR FRIENDS AND FOES

161

the house, it will be advisable to inquire into the condi-
tions of the stables in the vicinity. Properly kept
stables will greatly reduce the number of flies.

It will be found that gregarious insects do not appear
in such great numbers year after year: there must be
some cause for this. It will be an interesting problem
to be solved.

The enemies of insects increase as well as the com-
petitors. Parasites, attracted by innumerable insects
upon which they prey, increase so rapidly as to devour
their own means of support. They in turn succumb
and the defeated host rallies ; so the alternate warfare
goes on forever. And in the activities of these beings
which we are wont to consider beneath us, there is
much for profitable observation and careful study.

102 ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

CHAPTER IX
THE WEALTH OF INSECT LIFE ORDERS

INSECTS, numerically considered, comprise four-
fifths of the animal life of the globe. There are now
about 250,000 species to which names have been given.
This number, it is estimated, is about one-tenth of the
existing forms. If we look at a number of these we
find great differences in appearance and structure. If
an examination be made of those which at first glance
appear to be similar, marked distinctions arise. For
example, we frequently strike at a fly biting the back
of our hand, thinking it to be the common house-fly,
while in reality the common house-fly has not the nec-
essary mouth-parts to enable it to pierce the cuticle.
Again, we might find two insects apparently widely
separated by color, or structure, distinctions due to
the character in the sexes of the same kind of insect.
Then if we change the food and surroundings of an
insect, we soon find a subsequent generation of this in-
sect changing in form and appearance. The sheep tick,
a wingless, almost grub-like insect, was once a two-
winged fly, but on account of its parasitic habits it has
lost its wings through disuse. Other forms, such as
the viceroy butterfly (Fig. 48, 6), have changed their
outward appearance. If we remove an insect to a new
country w r e find changes arising, due largely to changed
climatic conditions.

And so in classification, we find it difficult at all

WEALTH OF INSECT LIFE 163

times and under all circumstances to recognize forms
possessing blood relations sufficiently intimate to enable
them to reproduce in kind through successive genera-
tions. We must not expect or look for absolute identity
among individuals of the same species or kind. We
should be satisfied with an agreement in the most es-
sential features. Then if the question arises concern-
ing the essential features of a character, it will have
to be said that the cssentialness of a character is to be
found in the constancy of its reappearance as successive
generations come forth. Upon such considerations is
a species based.

But as has been suggested, species themselves change.
Within species we find varieties, which in time, we may
suggest, will continue to vary, for one or several of the
reasons stated, in a fixed direction until their essential
characteristics will be so diverse from the mother species
as to constitute a species themselves. There seems to
be a tendency in nature to encourage, as it were, this
divergence. If all forms of one species of insect were
identical, all would be common prey to the same ene-
mies. That is, if a certain parasitic insect or bird al-
ways attacked a certain species, these being all the
same, none would escape through the faulty recognition
of the enemy. But since this tendency to vary exists,
some escape by reason of dissimilar features, which
enables them, temporarily at least, to elude the recogni-
tion of the enemy. And so those escaping by reason
of these variations are consequently liable to reproduce
these variations in their offspring, until the variations
become fixed. Under such circumstances we consider
that a species has been developed. Individuals, then,

16-i ELEMENTAEY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

which constitute a species are those which do reproduce
in kind through successive generations. To ascertain
the powers of insects in this direction would be a very
difficult task. So for the most part, at present, specific
distinctions are based upon characters which, being
present in a large number of closely allied individuals,
are considered constant.

Groups of closely allied species are arranged to-
gether under one genus ; then closely allied genera are
placed in a group called a family; and families with
leading characteristics in common form an order; and
orders, for the same reason, compose a class ; and classes
a branch; and branches a kingdom. This may be
termed artificial ; and in part the arrangement is arti-
ficial, but the endeavor is to discover the natural group-
ing. The classificatory position, then, for instance of
our familiar robin, might be sketched thus:

ANIMAL KINGDOM.

Branch, Chordata (Vertebrata). Family, Turdidse.
Class, Aves. Genus, Merula.

Order, Passeres. Species, migratoria.

The term Robin is the common or vernacular name ;
the scientific name, the one intelligible to ornithologists
of all nations, is Merula migratoria. And so in speak-
ing of any one form two names are required, the first
to designate the genus, and the second term the species.
Varieties are known as subspecies, races, or varieties.

It will be our purpose to acquaint the student with
the principal orders and families of insects, and in so
doing the attention is called to the steps to be taken
from order and family before species is reached. The
system used is an old one, and takes for its basis of

WEALTH OF INSECT LIFE 165

differentiation the character of the organs of flight, and
the structure of the mouth-parts. Exceptions to the
arrangement can be found in every order given. The
same may be said of any system thus far proposed.
This method commends itself for its simplicity and the
uniformity of its nomenclature.

Insects, then, according to this system are grouped
into nine orders, and the names of these are formed
of words compounded with the Greek root, vrrepdv,
pteron, meaning wing. These are: Aptera, ISTeurop-
tera, Orthoptera, Tliysanoptera, Hemiptera, Lepidop-
tera, Coleoptera, Diptera, and Hymenoptera. The
character of the mouth-parts is designated by the terms
biting and suclclncj, the former referring to that form
of mouth in which the mandibles and the maxilke, or
either one, are used in grasping, biting or masticating
the food; the latter pertains to that form of mouth
adapted for sucking. A discussion of the chief char-
acteristics of these orders is given, and some of the more
prominent subdivisions, as well as characteristic forms,
are briefly treated.

APTERA.

This term, Aptera, is derived from a, without, and
TrrepoV, pteron, a wing. The insects coming under this
order are therefore wingless. Mouth-parts mandibulate,
metamorphosis slight, the adult form being the same as
the larval form. They have a delicate outer skin,
sometimes covered with scales. Though somewhat
primitive in form, they are so diverse in their individ-
ual structures that it is difficult to frame a definition
which will include all the group. While it is true that

1C6 ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

all are wingless, the order does not include all insects
without wings. The term wingless, as used in reference
to the Aptera, designates those forms, wingless in them-
selves, and descendants of ancestors which at no time
possessed wings. Among the winged orders, wingless
forms are found. Such forms, it is believed, have -de-
scended from winged ancestors.

The Fish Moth. 1 Of this order the forms which tlio
student will most likely meet will be
those frequently found in the pantry, in
dark closets and damp places. House-
wives frequently term them fish moths.
If an examination with a microscope be
given, they will be found to be covered by
shiny scales not unlike those of a fish,
and these scales frequently give them a
silvery appearance as they move away

FIG. 126. A fish . .

moth. (Leptsma when disturbed. They are sometimes
8p called bristle-tails, by reason of the three

long bristle-like appendages at the caudal end of the
body. (Fig. 126.) While some forms live in the house
in pantries and in book-cases, or behind wall-paper,
feeding upon starchy substances wherever found, others
are to be found out of doors under stones and loose bark.
The Springtail. 2 - - The springtail is the common
name given to another group belonging to this order,
so called by reason of its ability to spring suddenly.
This power is given it by a tail-like organ attached to
the end of the body. This tail extends beneath the

1 Suborder, Thysanura. - Suborder, Collembola.

WEALTH OF INSECT LIFE

167

body almost to the head.
(Fig. 127.) When this is
straightened out the insect
is propelled several feet
forward. Frequently num-
bers of these little crea-
tures like minute specks Fl(i . i 27 . springtaii (cor U nothri.r bo-
can be seen upon snow. To K8 >- (^ter Tullberg.)
such the name snow-flea is applied.

NEUROPTERA.

Insects with two pairs of membranous wings, bit-
ing mouth-parts, metamorphosis complete in some di-
visions and in others incomplete. The name arises
from vevpov, neuron, nerve, and Trrepdv, pteron, wing.
The wings, accordingly, are in many cases noticeable
for the great amount of net-work. The front wing and
the hind wing of the same insect are frequently alike in
form, texture, and neuration. This order includes
many heterogeneous insects, and is an order which has
been subdivided by some authorities into a number of
other orders. It includes such forms as the dragon-fly,
May-fly, stone-fly, white ant, caddis-fly, and lacewing-
fly. A wingless form, the bird-louse, is included here.
A better understanding of the scope of the order will
be gained by a treatment of a few representative forms.

May-Flies. 1 These insects, as the illustration will
show (Fig. 128), are characterized by two pairs of
membranous wings, the hinder pair being much smaller
than the front pair, and by the presence of two long,
thread-like abdominal appendages. They are peculiarly

1 Family, Ephemerida-.

168

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

interesting insects in the matter of their life his-
tory. The adult has an ephemeral life, lasting for a
day or so at most. The females of some species drop
their eggs upon the surface of the water, and others drop

their eggs beneath the
surface on stones. The
young nymph not at
all like its parent
hatches and lives in the
water, feeding upon
water plants or minute
insects for from one to
three years according to
the species. They come
forth at maturity, and
can be found in great
numbers in the warm
summer evenings around
the electric lights or
upon the trunks of trees
in the vicinity of water. Catch one of these adult
forms and note the delicacy of its body. Examine its
mouth-parts, and note that they are extremely rudi-
mentary or even wanting, a condition brought about by
disuse, since the life of the adult has become of such
short duration that the necessity for taking food is no
longer urgent. These insects are exceptional in their
life history, since they molt once after having reached
the winged stage.

Stone-Flies. 1 - - In structure of wings these insects
resemble the May-flies. The net-work of the veins

'Family. Perlidce.

FIG. 128. A May-fly. From a photograph.
Enlarged.

WEALTH OF INSECT LIFE

169

is frequently much less, and the hind wings are-
always more fully developed, folding in plaits on the
body when the insect is at rest. The mouth is fitted for
biting, the parts frequently being rudimentary.

The form in which these insects are most readily
observed is in the nymphal stage, when they can bo

FIG. 130. A stone-fly (Perla
ephyre).

FIG. 129. Stone-fly nymph.

found under rocks, stones or logs in brooks. They are
not at first observed, so closely do they cling to the
overturned stone or log. Remove some of them to a
bottle of water. How many legs have they ? Of what
use are those fringes along the under side of the body (
The White Ants. 1 - -While these are called ants, they
are not closely related to ants. Like ants, however,
they are social, and are represented by queens, kings,
workers, and a form not found among ants, the
soldier.

'Family, Termitidce.

170

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

FIG. 131. White ants. Sol-
dier on the left, worker on the
right.

The workers, as the term sug-
gests, perform the labors of the
colony. The soldiers are the de-
fenders of the home. Upon the
king and queen depends the in-
crease of individuals.

Kings and queens are winged.
In May and June those indi-
viduals belonging to our spe-
cies in this country leave the
nest by flight and select new
locations. A king chooses a queen. They shed their
wings. If perchance a few workers find them and adopt
them, the workers will
build a circular cell for
protection and furnish
them food. This proced-
ure forms the basis for
the establishment of a col-
ony. Since workers do
not always discover and
adopt these noted individ-
uals, many kings and
queens perish unattended.
Should a colony become
queenless, wingless, sex-
ual individuals, compli-
mented kings and queens,
are produced. Such females are unable
to lay many eggs, and here we find sev-
eral of these required in the colony to fill

FIG. 132. A king
white ant. En-
larged.

FIG. IBS. white

ant queen, from

Africa - natural
Ph "

WEALTH OF INSECT LIFE

171

FIG. 134. Nest of white ants on post, denoted by arrow on left ; locality,
Cuba. Photographed by M. V. Slingerland.

FIG. 135. White ants' nest on trunk of tree, denoted by arrow on right ; lo-
cality, Cuba. Photographed by M. V. Slingerland.

172 ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

the place of a properly developed queen. In this coun-
try white ants are to be found under logs and stones,
not infrequently associated with our common ants. Here
they do not grow so large, nor are they so numerous as
they are in tropical countries.

Dragon-Flies, 1 or " snake doctors," frequently so called,
are familiar objects about ponds and quiet streams.
In some species the females skim along over the sur-
face of the water, dipping down to the water to drop
an egg, there to hatch, and, in the form resembling

FIG. 136. Dragon-fly (Libellula pulchella') natural size. From a photograph.

the figure (Fig. 140), to seek a livelihood. Other
females oviposit by descending some water plant until
the tip of the abdomen is below the surface of the water,
there placing the egg in a slit cut in the plant for the
purpose.

Among the weird superstitious beliefs of childhood,
and not infrequently of later years, the dragon-flies
have a place. Nearly every boy will tell you that the

1 Family, Libellulidce.

WEALTH OF INSECT LIFE

173

chief end of this insect is to feed the snakes which lie
in wait for him. It is a " snake-feeder " in the boy's
parlance. Children generally are wont to fear this
insect; they call it the " devil's darning-needle." They
have been told -- and they believe it --that the long
tail-like abdomen is a needle with which
the insect sews up children's ears.

Entirely at variance with these strange
tales, the insect is not only harmless but
highly beneficial, since one of its chief
sources of food is the mosquito, with
whose piercing propensities all are fa-
miliar. When the day is clear and still
and the vertical rays of the sun make one
content to rest a while in the shade of
some spreading elm near the pond lily's
home, or down by some sluggish stream,
then it is, and there, that the dragon-flies
are most active, skimming along over
the water, darting up, then down, right
about face, all so quickly that at times
the eye can scarcely follow. Suddenly that rests its wings
one of them may halt to rest upon a stick a lon g ltsback ' The

*' dragon-fly rests its

or stump rising above the surface of the wings at right an-
gles with its body.

water, or a dead limb overhanging, to
rest, probably, but more likely to train the eyes on the
surrounding space in quest of passing mosquitoes or
buzzing flies to be swooped down upon. Thus these
dragon-flies are sometimes called " mosquito-hawks."
Not unlike the raptorial birds, dragon-flies appear to
have a certain stick or stump as lookout for prey. If

FIG, 137. A dam-
sel-fly, a Libellulid

174

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

the dragon-fly is disturbed it will fly away, to return
shortly. This trait furnishes excellent opportunities
for taking its picture in its native haunts. The perch
discovered, the camera can be set and focused ; when all
is quiet the insect will return, and the mere pressure
of the bulb furnishes a plain picture such as this pho-
tograph, taken in a similar way.

The dragon-fly's biogra-
phy, could it tell it, would
be full of strange incidents
and hairbreadth escapes.
It comes from a tiny egG',
dropped alone in some large
pond to hatch and grow.
Two problems at once are
presented - - to secure a live-
lihood and to escape its hos-
tile water neighbors, among
them the fish and other
members of its kind, both
ready to feed upon it. It
first lives upon micro-organ-
isms of the water, but later
becomes much larger and stronger and able to capture
" wigglers " such as are to be found in rain-barrels.
Its under lip is well adapted for this work; it is
scoop-shaped, capable of extending and scooping in a
wiggler and then drawing the catch up to the mouth,
where the jaws make short work of it. (Fig. 139). And
if perchance alone and unaided it has been able to
escape its enemies and secure enough food to bring it

FIG. 138. Dragon-fly on the look-
out for prey. Photographed from
life.

WEALTH OF INSECT LIFE

175

to the fullness of that water
stage, it ascends some reed dur-
ing the night, and about dawn its
back breaks open and out creeps
slowly and apparently painfully
the dragon-fly, perfect in form
but limp and colorless. The
bright sunlight, already appear-
ing, soon hardens its skeleton
structure and brings out the
characteristic colors of the par-
ent insect which dropped the
egg in the pond.

Mallophaga. 1 Bird-lice have,
by reason of their parasitic hab-
its existing through a long pe-
riod, become so highly special-
ized as to have little in common with other members
of the group. Bird-lice must not be confused with
true lice. The former have biting mouth-parts, the latter
haustellate. The word Mallophaga is
derived from two Greek
words, meaning, to eat
wool. These insects
have incomplete meta-
morphoses, are wing-
less, and as external par-
asites feed upon the
feathers, hair or skin
of the host. Thev are

i/

to be found upon both
birds and mammals.

FIG. 139. Side and top view
of head of nymph of dragon-fly,
showing scoop-shaped jointed
appendage of lower lip, with
pinchers at end. With this the
nymph catches "wigglers" and
other prey.

FIG. 140. Skin
of nymph from
which dragon-fly
has emerged.

FIG. 141. A bird-
louse (Eurymetopus
taurus.) This form
lives among the
feathers of the al"
batross.

176

ELEMENTAEY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

Caddis-Flies. 1 - - These moth-like insects, small and
rather unattractive, are not frequently noticed. Though
possessed of two pairs of well-developed wings, they
do not use them readily in flight, so that the adults
rarely wander far from their place of emergence in
some stream, brooklet, or pool. The mouth-parts of
the adult are rudimentary, the metamorphosis com-
plete. The eggs are deposited in a mass surrounded
by jelly. Sometimes this mass contains as many as
one hundred eggs.

FIG. 142. A caddis-fly (Leptocerus dilutus).

Of greater interest than the adult, will be, to begin-
ners, the larva and its habits. The young caddis-worm
protects itself from fish and other enemies by con-
structing a house of sticks, pebbles, leaves and the like,
to be found in the water where it lives. The figure
(Fig. 37) represents but one of the many interesting
houses. Among the stones through which the waters
of a small stream is running such forms live.

ORTHOPTERA.

Insects of this order have biting mouth-parts, two
pairs of wings, the front wings being generally narrow
and the hind wings of more delicate texture, and fold
fan-like under the front wings; incomplete metamor-

1 Family, Phryganeidae.

WEALTH OF INSECT LIFE

177

FIG. 143. The home of the stone-fly and the caddis-fly.

phosis. It includes such forms as the cockroach, ear-
wig, praying mantis, walking-stick, cricket, katydid,
and grasshopper. The term is derived from opftfe,
orthos, straight, and Trrepdv pteron, wing.
12

178 ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

ORTHOPTERA THAT WALK.

Cockroaches. 1 - - These insects are known to every
housewife. They are most active at night-time, and
readily learn the paths leading to the pantry shelf. The
eggs are all laid at once, within a brown capsule. (Fig.
121.) Many species are wingless.

Praying Mantis. 2 - - The Praying Mantis possesses
many appellations. The fore feet, well developed for

FIG. 144. Young mantis on lookout for prey natural size. Photographed
from life by M. V. Slingerland.

grasping, the elongate prothorax and prominent head,
capable of rotary motion, certainly give these insects,
to say the least, a strange appearance. They are rather
sluggish in their movements, except when an approach-
ing fly reaches a point within their grasp. All these
insects are carnivorous. The eggs are laid side by side
until they form a mass upon some object such as a fence-
board, rail, or limb of a tree. The young escape
readily, leaving the egg-mass in form but showing
the openings from which the insects come. The mantis
family vary in color from dark brown in some to light

1 Family, Blattidce. " Family, Mantidce.

WEALTH OF INSECT LIFE

179

green in others. Some of these insects illustrate pro-
tective characteristics to a high degree in their resem-
blance to leaves of trees. Such forms are confined to
the tropics.

" Praying mantis," " praying horse/' " mule-killer,"
" devil horse," " rear horse," and " camel cricket " are

FIG. 145. Full-grown mantis patiently waiting or "praying" for an oppor-
tunity to seize any small, unwary creature. Natural size. Photographed from
life by M. V. Slingerland.

a" partial list of the terms referring to the insect repre-
sented in the figure. It has been called by scientists,
Phasmomantis Carolina. The attitude doubtless ac-
counts for the modifying term " praying." " Rear
horse " and " camel cricket " have some reference to
its shape. The term " mule-killer " arises from the
superstition that the dark-colored saliva which the in-
sect ejects from its mouth is fatal to the mule. It is

180 ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

not easily understood how those familiar with the char-
acter and temperament of the mule could readily put
their faith in this doctrine.

This formidable-appearing insect can sometimes be
found in a quiet corner of the window, in an attitude
somewhat like the one here shown. If prayer there be,
the petition is surely for the approach of an unwary
house-fly to be readily pounced upon for the next meal.
This insect is perfectly harmless.

Walking-Sticks. 1 - -Walking- Sticks likewise possess
characteristics which unquestionably protect them and
thus favor their existence. Their long, stick-like bodies
and inactive disposition allow them to simulate sticks ;
or when on trees, the twigs. In the tropics we find the
wings of some of these forms simulating leaves. The
common form in the North is wingless. The walking-
sticks are vegetable-feeders. The eggs are dropped
singly upon the ground. (See Fig. 47.)

The foregoing proceed by walking or running ; crick-
ets, grasshoppers and katydids have the hind legs fitted
for leaping, and while capable of walking they generally
move about by jumping.

ORTIIOPTEEA THAT JUMP.

Crickets. 2 Crickets are to be found in the harvest-
field, under the shocks of grain, and around the stacks.
Not infrequently one enters the house, and then, if it
be a male, his clear, shrill "click, click" (page 45),
his mate-call, notifies you of his presence. These are
the familiar black crickets, that live mostly upon the
ground. The family contains two other kinds the

1 Family, Phasmidce. - Family, Gryllidoe.

WEALTH OF INSECT LIFE

181

mole crickets, which live under
the ground, in burrows of their
own making, feeding upon the
tender roots of plants ; and tree
crickets, which live above-
ground, in bushes and trees.
In the early spring the eggs of
one of the tree crickets can be
found in the raspberry canes.
(Fig. 36.)

Katydids. 1 - -Katydids, like-
wise, are musical, night being
their time for song. (Page 44.)
They live in trees, and from
their color resemblance to foli-
age are not readily observed.
Belonging to this same family
are others, which resemble grasshoppers. Such are

FIG. 146. A mole cricket
(Gryllotalpa borealis) one and
one-half times natural size.

FIG. 147. Angular-winged katydid natural size.

easily distinguished from grasshoppers by the length
of the antennsc, which are longer than the body. This

1 Family, Locustidce.

182 ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

group, then, is sometimes called the long-horned grass-
hoppers. Grasshoppers proper have antennas shorter
than the body.

Grasshoppers. 1 Grasshoppers are among our most
common insects. The life history of one of the spe-
cies has already been given. (Page 3.) Those living
in this country can be separated into three groups,
depending upon the structure of the adult. One
group embraces all those without extended ridge on
longitudinal median line of pronotum, and bearing
tubercle on center of prosternum (Acridiince). The
yellow grasshopper (Melanoplus differentialis} is an ex-
ample. The second is without prosternal spine, and has
an extended ridge upon the pronotum (Oedipodince}.
The '" dusty hoppers," so common in the roadways, be-
long to this group. The third are not so generally
known, but are easily recognized by the backward and
downward receding front of the head (Tryxalince}.

THYSANOPTERA.

These insects have four long, narrow, membranous
unfolded wings, well fringed with hairs, from which
the name of the order is taken. There are few veins.
The wings at rest lie horizontally along the back.
The mouth-parts are imperfectly fitted for sucking,
being intermediate in form between those of the Orthop-
tera and those of the Hemiptera. The metamorphosis
is incomplete.

The name of the order arises from Ovaavos, thysanos,
fringe, and Trre/oo'y, pteron, a wing. These minute in-
sects are to be found under the bark of trees, in the

'Family, Acrididce.

WEALTH OF INSECT LIFE

183

FIG. 148. A thrips.
Greatly enlarged.

heads of grain, timothy, clover, and in
flowers, especially such as the daisy.
The majority of this order are plant-
feeders; a few are predaceous. These
insects, commonly called thrips, are
scarcely visible to the naked eye. They
are about one-twelfth of an inch long.
When the head of a daisy has been
rubbed in the hand, a lens will be needed
to clearly observe the insects, and even
then the observer may require a com-
pound microscope before the fringed wings can be clearly
perceived. HEMIPTERA.

It is customary among people in general to speak of
all insects, or forms resembling them, as bugs. The
term can properly be applied only to the members of
this order. These have incomplete metamorphosis,
haustellate mouth-parts, four wings. The Hemiptera
or true bugs include some of our most injurious forms.
The term is derived from ?;/, hemi, half, and Trrepov,
pteron, wing. The order contains a number of forms
widely diverging from the general type, so that the
group is best understood when resolved into two fairly
well-defined suborders, the Heteroptera and the
Homoptera. The Heteroptera are those with front
wings of an unequal texture, the basal half being the
heavier, the outer half not infrequently translucent. It
is also characteristic of this suborder that the beak rises
from the front part of the head. The Homoptera com-
prise those with wings of like texture throughout, and
beak rising from the ventral portion of the head.

184

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

FIG. 149. Box-elder-bug (Lepto-
coris trivittatus). Enlarged.

The Heteroptera Among the Heteroptera are the

chinch-bug, the squash-bug, the box-elder-bug, and the
assassin-bug, living on land; and the giant water-bug,
the water-strider, and the back-swimmer, living in the

water. Those land forms
which have been mentioned,
with the exception of the
assassin-bugs, live upon the
juices of plants. The assas-
sin-bugs lie in wait and seize
upon other insects, pierce
their prey, and draw there-
from the lifeblood. Those
living in water are all pre-
daceous.

Giant Water-Bug. 1 When
electric lights came into general use for street illumi-
nation, there frequently appeared around them an unus-
ually large insect. Great numbers of such insects were
wont to congregate around the lights, and they soon
became known as " electric-light bugs." This insect in

reality is one of the
aquatic forms of this
order. It is predaceous.
It darts out from some
cranny nook in brook or
pond to catch small fish,
tadpole, or other aquatic
insect. Having secured its prey, this giant water-bug
drives in its beak and leisurely regales itself with the

'Family, Belostomidce.

FIG. 150. An assassin-bug (Melanolestes
pioipes), showing strong beak and large
fore legs fitted for grasping.

WEALTH OF INSECT LIFE

185

FIG. 151. Giant water-bug (Bena-
cus griseus) natural size.

blood of its victim. This insect is harmless, but would
readily use its beak in self-defense.

The Homoptera includes
such forms as the cicada or
harvest-fly (sometimes erro-
neously called locust), the
buffalo tree-hopper, aphids or
plant-lice, and scale insects.
Of all the insects in this or-
der, possibly the plant-lice
and scale insects are the most
unique in their development.
The plant-lice, in addition
to a very peculiar mode
of development, have with-
in their family certain spe-
cies which secrete a kind of honey much appreciated
by certain ants; and as these ants have now come to

rely upon this as a
means of subsistence,
they have in many
cases adopted, as it
were, the plant-lice,
and care for them by
moving them about
to the tenderest parts
of the plants from
which the aphids
draw their nourish-
ment. And in turn
the aphids, from

FIG. 152. Cicada and cast-off nymphal cov- 1 , ,

Wins-natural size. From a photograph. >ng attention by tllC

186 ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

ants, have become dependent upon the ants. This
illustrates the effects of use and disuse. Undoubtedly

/

the aphids were once independent and self-supporting

FIG. 153. Newly hatched scale insect. Greatly enlarged.

and unattended by ants. Had the ants never under-
taken the care of these aphids in the first place, the

aphids would still
be in full possession
of all their powers
and instincts ; but
the ants having
through many gen-

FIG. 154. Protective covering of female scales p

(Aspidiotus greenii). CratlOUS aSSUmed tllC

care-taking responsibility, this faculty or instinct of the
aphids, not being used, has evidently been lost. Ants
running up and down trees are not infrequently going to
and from these aphid pastures. Among the plant-lice

WEALTH OF INSECT LIFE

187

we find winged individuals, capable of carrying the spe-
cies into new localities, and wingless forms whose sole
duty is the reproduction of their kind.

Among; the most anomalous forms of insect life

o

FIG. 155. Adult female
scale insect (Kermes ni-
valis) living oo oak twig,
showing a form which
does not secrete a pro- .

tective covering. En-
larged. Photographed

from nature.

FIG. 156. An unprotected scale. Adult female scale

insect (Lecanium aurantiacum) living on osage-orange
branch. Enlarged.

are the scale insects. The young either come forth
from eggs or are given birth, both sexes at first being
alike, resembling mites (Fig. 153), and subsisting upon
the juices of plants and trees. As they develop, the
males go through complete metamorphosis, and emerge
as insects with one pair of wings, but without mouth-
parts. The female passes through an incomplete meta-

188

ELEMENTAEY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

morphosis. After the first molt she loses her legs,
antennae, and eyes, and remains stationary as a footless

FIG. 157. Adult female scale insect (Kerm.es pubescens) living on oak twig. An
unprotected scale. Enlarged. Photographed from nature.

grub upon the host, there to draw sustenance and re-
produce her kind. Some female forms of these insects,
however, retain the power of locomotion. Many of

FIG. 158. Protected scale in-
sects. Scales under which fe-
male scale insects (Diaspis
snowii) live. These scales are
formed from a waxy substance
which is an excretion from the
back of the scale insect's body.
The scale does not adhere to
the insect's back.

FIG. 159. Protected
scale insect. Scales
which cover the male
scale (Diaspis Snowii)
during its metamorpho-
sis.

these footless females are well
protected by an outer scale
(Fig. 158), which is formed by
an excretion from the dorsal part
of the body. Others are naked. (Fig. 157.) To the
former kind belong the noted and injurious scale com-
monly known as the San Jose scale.

WEALTH OF INSECT LIFE

189

FIG. 160. Adult male scale Insect (Aspidiotus an-ylus). Enlarged. Drawn
by Miss M. E. Wise.

The true lice, those that live as parasites upon the
skin of mammals, belong to the Hemiptera. Some
authorities place them in
a separate suborder called
Parasitica.

COLEOPTERA.

These insects possess well-
defined mandibnlate month-
parts. The wing-covers are
horny and do not overlap,
but meet along the median
line of the back. The wings
proper, the ones most useful
in flight, are delicate, mem-
branous, and are concealed
beneath these wing-covers.
The metamorphosis is com-
plete. These insects are

. TI j i i f ' 10 ' 161- A water scavenger (Hy-

commonly called beetles, aropMius trian a uiari). XH.

190

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

and include such forms as the June beetle, the lady-
bird, the potato beetle, the fireflies or lightning-bugs,
and the plum curculio. The Coleoptera are not likely
to be mistaken for those of any other order. The term
arises from two Greek words, /coXe'o?, coleos, meaning
sheath, and Trrepdv, pteron, wing.

FIG. 162. A click beetle (Alaus
oculatus). From photograph. X

Basing

FIG. 163. Wood-boring beetle
at work in yellow-pine board.
Photographed Jfroin life by W. O.
Stevens.

the classification
upon the mouth-parts, the
order is divided into two
groups : the true beetles, such as the June beetle and the
ground beetle (page 277), those with typical mouth-
parts ; and those with mouth-parts developed into a long
snout, such as the plum curculio, and the snout beetle
illustrated in the figure. (Fig. 1G4.) The order em-
braces a large number of species, and a number of these
are of common occurrence. Some forms, such as the tiger
beetles, the ground beetles, whirligig beetles (or " lucky

WEALTH OF INSECT LIFE

191

bugs "), are predaceous. Other forms, commonly called
borers, are such, as the apple-tree borer, the pine-tree
borer (Fig. 163), and the cottonwood borer, the larva of
which live within the trees named. There are likewise

forms which feed upon

leaves, such as the potato
beetle and June beetle. A
few abnormal species are
parasitic upon bees and
wasps. Those whitish FlG 164 A Bnout beetle (9phmopho .
grubs found when spading, rus *)-twice natural size,
or when in quest of angleworms, belong to the June-
beetle family. The eggs from which they emerge are
laid beneath the surface of the ground, to hatch within
a month to feed upon tender rootlets, or decayed vege-
table matter. In autiimn they hibernate below frost
line ; in May they pupate near the surface ; in June
they emerge.

The familiar ladybird larvae are for the most part
predaceous, feeding upon other insects, especially plant-
lice and scale insects ; consequently the black or spotted
lame are to be found running around upon plants and
trees. (Fig. 107.) Pupation takes place with the pupa
pending by the abdomen from leaves, fences, or trunks
of trees.

LEPIDOPTERA.

These are insects which have long been the recipients
of popular attention. They possess haustellate mouth-
parts, which take the form of a spirally rolled proboscis,
four wings, similar in structure, and covered with
minute scales. The metamorphosis is complete. The

192

ELEMENTAEY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

m* ' >

lipifi

a
o

en

a
,a
o

1-5

H

s

A
-

I

o

g

a

a

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6

WEALTH OF INSECT LIFE

193

larvse of these insects are commonly called caterpillars.
Lepidoptera is composed of two Greek derivatives:
XeTrt?, lepis, scale, and irrepov, pteron, wing. These scale-
winged insects are divided into moths, skippers, and
butterflies, dependent upon habits and structure of the
antennae. (Figs. 167, 169, 170.)

FIG. 166. The "humming-bird" moth (Phlegethontius celeus) with proboscis
extended, to show its length about one-half natural size. From a photograph.

Moths. Nearly all moths are night-flyers. Some
fold the wings when at rest, longitudinally and fre-
quently roof-like upon the side of the body; others
retain the wings horizontally. Many moths find pro-
tection in their color resemblance to objects upon which
they rest.

Skippers are so called from their uneven manner of

flight; when resting upon some flower or damp spot
13

194

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

on the ground they impress one as extremely nervous
beings. The wings keep moving from vertical to hori-
zontal and back again. If there be a momentary rest
it is generally with the wings held vertically. Some-
times the front wings are held vertically while the
hind wings are resting horizontally. One unacquainted
with the manner of flight might suppose the insect to

FIG. 167. Luna moth (Actias luna), showing form of moth antennae. ^ a

be a wounded butterfly, so irregular and spasmodic is
their mode of action when on the wing. Their antennae
are also characteristic. (Fig. 169.)

Butterflies are day-flyers, and are more slender in
body than either moths or skippers. The wings are
generally held vertically when at rest. The antenna
are also distinctly characteristic. (Fig. 170). The
life history and the habits of one of these has been
illustrated elsewhere. (Pages 13-23.)

WEALTH OF INSECT LIFE

195

<

FIG. 168 "Pitcher" pupa of "humming-bird" moth. In the larval stage,
this insect is to be found as a large green caterpillar on the tomato vines. Natural
size. From a photograph.

FIG. 169. A skipper (Eudamus [TVwrybes] bathyllus), showing recurved tips of
antennae natural size.

V

FIG. 170. Interrogation butterfly (Grapta interrorjationis\ showing form of
antenna in butterflies. (Figs. 38 and 39 illustrate larva and pupa of this butterfly.)
From photograph.

196

ELEMENTAEY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

FIG. 171.
bids) and

A fly (Sarcophaga cim-
its pupa-case, showing

DIPTERA.

Insects with haustellate mouth-parts, front wings
membranous, hind wings replaced by knobbed processes
called halteres. The- metamorphosis is complete.

The name is derived from
5 dis, double, and Trrepdv,
pteron, wing. The Diptera
include all insects which
can properly be called flies.
Such forms as the house-fly,
the mosquito, and the horse-
fly are Diptera. While the
mouth is fitted for sucking,
in some flies such as mos-
quitoes that organ is fitted
for piercing the skin and
sucking the blood. The or-
der is a large one, and the species differ much in man-
ner of life. The larvae are commonly called maggots.
The females generally lay their eggs in the vicinity
of the proper food for the maggot. Our common house-
fly prefers fresh horse-manure for oviposition. Upon
this the maggot feeds about a week, then transforms
into the pupal stage, remains so for about another week,
and then comes forth as a two-winged insect to find its
way inside mosquito-barred doors and windows, or into
dwelling-houses not properly guarded.

The method of emergence from the pupal case is -of
interest. The larvae of more generalized forms such as
the robber-fly, come forth from a straight seam in the
side of the case, and in this differ not at all from the
mode of many other insects. In the case of the more

bursting off of end of pupa-case to be
its method of emerging. Enlarged.

WEALTH OF INSECT LIFE

197

FIG. 172. Robber-fly (Erax cinerascens)
one and one-half times natural size.

specialized forms, such
as the house-fly, when
they are ready to escape
there forms upon the
front of the head a sort
of balloon, which blows
off, as it were, the end of
the pupal case, and al-
lows the fly to walk out.
Then the bladder - like
forehead gradually re-
cedes and the head be-
comes normal.

Fleas.- -These aberrant insects are by some authori-
ties placed in a separate order ; by others in a suborder
of the Diptera. They are wingless insects, with body
compressed, legs well developed, and adapted for jump-
ing. The female lays about a dozen eggs. These are

deposited in the dust accumu-
lated in cracks and crevices.
The larvae have a head and jaws,
and feed upon decaying bits of
animal and vegetable matter
found in the crevices where they
live. Their pupal stage is
passed within a cocoon spun by

the lar/a. The mouth-parts of the adult are fitted for
piercing and sucking. Among domestic animals they
are to be found upon the cat, dog, rabbit, poultry, and
pigeons. There is a species which lives upon the cat
and dog --a flea which at times also proves annoying

FIG. 173. A flea (Ceratopsyl-
lus serraticeps). Enlarged ten

times.

11)8

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

to man. In Europe there is a species of flea which is
very troublesome to man. This species occurs some-
times in this country.

HYMENOPTERA.

These insects have four membranous wings. The
hind wings are smaller than the front wings. Man-
dibulate mouth-parts, in many cases accompanied by

FIG. 174. A wood-boring hymenopt'eron, the pigeon horn-tail (Tremex columba)
natural size. From photograph.

proboscis ; metamorphosis complete. The name arises
from two Greek words, vprfv, hymen, membrane, and
irrepdv, pteron, a wing.

This order includes the bees, ants, and wasps, well-
known forms, remarkable for their social habits and
marvelous instincts. The order may be divided into
three groups, divisions based largely upon the habits of
the insects.

Plant-eating Hymenoptera are those whose larvae
have feet, and are capable of moving about in quest of
food; they somewhat resemble caterpillars. The meta-

WEALTH OF INSECT LIFE 199

morphosis is similar to the metamorphosis of Lepi-
doptera, except that the pupal case is soft and assumes
no hard outer skin. They feed upon plants. Such is
the rose slug, that greenish worm with delicate skin,
which, feeding mostly at night, skeletonizes the rose-
leaves. This work of the slug gives the bush a decidedly
fire-burnt appearance. This group is commonly called
" saw-flies," because of the two saw-like processes of the
ovipositor. The larvse of some other members of this
division bore in wood. The adult insects of this divi-
sion can readily be distinguished from the two subse-
quent groups by the broad basal union of the abdomen
with the thorax, the caliber of the basal segments of the
abdomen being about such as is usual in insects of the
same size. The two groups which follow have the ab-
domen connected to what appears to be the thorax by
a slender stalk. On account of this peculiar joining
of the two parts of the body we find such terms in use
as " thread-waisted wasps."

Parasitic Hymenoptera. -Ichneumon-fries are the
chief members of this second division, characterized
by the parasitic habits of the larva. These larvse are
usually parasitic within the bodies of plant-eating in-
sects. If a society of caterpillars be watched for a
short time, long, slender-bodied insects will be observed
darting down among the caterpillars. Frequently after
the insect has flown away some caterpillar in the assem-
blage will be observed squirming and wriggling. It is
endeavoring to cast off the egg just deposited upon its
back. From this egg there will hatch a footless grub -
why footless ? - - to feed upon the body liquids of the
caterpillar. Since the vital portions of the host are not

200

ELEMENTAEY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

generally attacked, the caterpillar frequently pupates;
and so, in collecting chrysalids, especially lepidopterous
ones, for emergence, one or many of these hymenoptera,
instead of the form corresponding to the pupal case, may
come forth from the case.

Fio. 175. Parasitic hymenopteron (Thalessa lunator) drilling with ovipositor
Into burrow of the wood-boring larva of the pigeon horn-tail. (After Riley.)

The accompanying figure (Fig. 175) illustrates a
parasitic hymenopteron 1 at work. This is one of the
larger insects of the order. It is parasitic upon the
wood-boring larva cf the pigeon horn-tail, 2 another hy-
menopteron. When Thalessa finds a tree infested by
this borer, she selects a place which she supposes to be
opposite the larva's burrow, elevates her long ovipositor
in a loop over her back, and places the tip of the ovipos-
itor on the bark of the tree. By raising and lowering

l Thal$ssa lunator.

"Tremex columba.

WEALTH OF INSECT LIFE

her body she skillfully drills a hole into the tree. When
the ovipositor enters the burrow she deposits an egg
in it. The larva that hatches from this egg crawls
along the burrow until it finds the wood-borer. This
wood-borer is a soft-bodied larva. To this the young
Thalessa fastens itself, and subsists upon its blood until
ready to pupate. It pupates within the burrow of the
horn-tail. Sometimes Thalessa is unable to extricate
her ovipositor, and is held fast until she dies.

Stinging Hymenoptera. Among these the female is
with few exceptions provided with a sting at the end of
the abdomen. Usually the f ootless - - why footless?
larvae are reared by the females in cells constructed for
the purpose. To this group belong ants, bees, and
wasps; these have been discussed elsewhere. (See
pages 62-88.)

202

ELEMENTAKY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

CHAPTEK X

GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION AND THE STRUGGLE

FOR LIFE

IN the study of physical geography we are accus-
tomed to continental maps illustrating land areas
bounded and indented by water areas. In political
geography, maps show the divisions and subdivisions
of countries based upon artificial conditions. Animal
geography is another branch of geographical science, in
which maps are of value in defining the boundaries of
the areas in which animal forms of definite classes
exist normally.

Habitat. - - The geographical range of a species of
animal or plant is frequently spoken of as the habitat
of the species; that is, the region in which the species
lives in a state of nature. From this it might be sup-
posed that where the species is originally found there
it thrives best, and that there the conditions are ideal
for its existence. This is not necessarily so. Of the
seventy-three species of insects which occur in the
United States in such numbers as to be injurious to
man's interests, thirty-seven have undoubtedly been in-
troduced from foreign countries. Less than thirty
years ago the eggs of the gypsy moth were imported
into Massachusetts from Europe. The insect escaped
from confinement. No particular attention was paid
to this escape. However, in 1890, some twenty years
after the introduction the State of Massachusetts

GEOGEAPHIC DISTRIBUTION

203

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204 ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

found it necessary to appropriate funds for carrying
on measures looking toward the permanent, reduction
of the numbers of this insect. The caterpillars have
continued to multiply and defoliate the trees each year.
In remedial work against this insect the State of Mas-
sachusetts has already spent over half a million dollars,
and much more must be spent before a permanent check
to its destructive increase can be assured. From these
facts it is readily inferred that the boundaries of the
habitat of a species are not constant, but are subject to
change. Every species unwittingly strives to extend
its territory, to gain more room to live, to disturb the
balance of forces which holds all in restraint. In this,
some species are successful, and extend their domain;
others are not; they cannot hold their own; they oc-
cupy less and less territory until they become extinct.
Barriers. Checks to the extension of range differ
with different groups of animals. Most mammals cannot
traverse oceans, nor can fishes cross continents. In-
sects, however, have a wide- distribution. This group
is represented in every part of the globe so far visited
by man, from the extreme limits of the Arctic and Ant-
arctic regions to the equator, and from the sea-level to
altitudes far above the line of perpetual snow. Hum-
boldt observed insects on Chimborazo at an elevation
of 18,000 feet. They exist in fresh and salt waters,
in subterranean caves and in hot springs, the waters
of which reach moderately high temperatures. A cer-
tain small fly (Psilopa] has been found breeding in
petroleum, a substance formerly supposed to be fatal
to insect life. In view of the vast numbers and varied
forms of insect life, it is not so surprising that this

GEOGEAPHIC DISTRIBUTION

205

206 ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

group exists over such a vast area and under such di-
verse conditions. What has been said of the group as
a whole cannot be said of the individual species in this
group. They, in their attempt to extend their range,
are subject to barriers. The barriers which restrict
the spread of species of insects may be classed under
two general divisions : (a) barriers which prevent en-
trance into new territory; (6) barriers which prevent
maintenance after introduction.

Barriers to Entrance. Checks, such as oceans, or high
mountain ranges, which affect many animal forms, are
not always valid in the case of insect species. Insects
surmount some of these obstacles through powers of
flight, or are transported. While it is not possible for
them to carry themselves across oceans or over high
mountain ranges, they are frequently transported dur-
ing quiescent periods such as the egg and pupal stages.
The eggs, the pupa, or even the larva, of a wood-boring
species, may drift in the heart of a log across an ocean.
Through chance, mammals or birds may carry species
of insects, during the quiescent stages of insect develop-
ment, across possible insect barriers into new territories.

Barriers to Existence. -Introduction into new terri-
tory does not decide the establishment therein of the
insect introduced. Climate is an important element
in the life history of an insect. Some insects require
a high altitude with its accompanying dry atmosphere
and moderate heat. Others can exist only under con-
ditions to be found in low lands with their marshes
and humid atmospheres. The collector who studies
the same locality for some time will notice that the in-
sects dwelling in marshy meadows differ from those of

GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION

207

the rocky cliff. The Parnassian butterflies, alpine
species, seem to require cool climate ; consequently they
are to be found in northern countries and in the high
altitudes of mountainous regions. The clouded skip-
per butterfly seems to thrive in a warm, moist climate.
Its habitat, then, in the United States is restricted to a
strip of land along the Atlantic seaboard and the Gulf
of Mexico.

While climatic conditions may not be unfavorable,
there is still another barrier which in the case of many
insects effectually prevents their spread. This is food
plants. There are many insects, notably butterflies,
which at some stage in their development are dependent
upon a certain plant or family of plants for sustenance.
The larvae or caterpillars of many butterflies will thrive
only upon certain plants. If these plants are wanting in
a new territory, it is evident that there will be no in-
crease in the respective species. The milkweed but-
terfly, already referred to under other phases, is a case
in point. The caterpillar of the milkweed butterfly
will grow and develop only when feeding upon the
leaves of some member of the milkweed family. This
insect belongs properly to the tropics, but has now a
widespread distribution. It was unknown in Hawaii
until a member of the milkweed family established
itself in Hawaii. Similar observations have been made
concerning its existence on a number of other oceanic
islands subsequent to the natural growth thereon of the
milkweed.

Fauna. - The term " fauna " is used to designate the
animal life of any district. The fauna of Iowa, for
instance, refers to all the animal life in a state of nature

208 ELEMENTAKY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

within the borders of the State. The insect fauna of
Iowa consists of all the insect life existing within the
borders of the State. State lines, however, have no
influence in themselves upon the distribution of species,
so that the fauna of Iowa and that of the adjoining
States of Missouri and Illinois would probably vary
but little.

Zones of Life. The continent of North America may
be divided upon the lines of animal and plant distribu-
tion into three primary transcontinental regions:
Boreal, Austral, and Tropical.

The Boreal region covers the whole of the northern
part of the continent, from the polar seas southward
to the northern boundary of the United States. A nar-
row strip along the Pacific coast and the higher por-
tions of the Sierra Cascades, the Rocky Mountains, and
the Alleghanies, all in the United States, are in this
life zone.

The Austral region covers the whole of the United
States except the Boreal mountains and the Tropical
lowlands.

The Tropical region covers the southern part of
the peninsula of Florida, the greater part of Central
America, the lowlands of southern Mexico south of the
table-land, and a narrow strip on each side of Mexico.
This strip follows the coast northward into the United
States.

The fauna and flora --that is, the animal and plant
life within each of these regions are not alike
throughout the respective regions. They show striking
differences. This has led to the subdivision of these
principal zones into a number of minor areas based

GEOGEAPHIC DISTRIBUTION

upon the particular grouping of plants and animals.
Maps are used to show zones of life. In like manner
the habitat of each species can be mapped out. (See
Figs. 170, ITT.)

Modes of Distribution Little has been done in the
study of the geographic distribution of insects as a
class, because many of _ the groups are liable to be trans-
ported by accidental causes, so that there is a tendency
to consider their faunal areas quite unstable. Neverthe-
less, among insects there are many species whose hab-
itat is greatly localized, due in a measure to the
extreme narrowness of the life habits of the species ;
that is, they have become so adapted to a certain food
plant, certain climatic conditions, and to association
with certain other forms of animal life, that they can-
not exist away from these set conditions. In the study
of insect distribution, all these factors and conditions
are to be considered.

The manner in which insects can be distributed in
a state of nature are: over landed areas, by flight or
travel, winds, transportation on birds, mammals or
other animals; across seas to new lands, by flight, (in-
sects have been met in flight three hundred miles from
mainland,) transportation in egg, larval or adult stages,
on driftwood. Commercial activities, instituted by
man, greatly facilitate the spread of insects. In the
first place, insects can be introduced intentionally, as
in the case of the gypsy moth. They can likewise be,
and more frequently are, accidentally transported.
The frequency of commercial exchanges between mari-
time powers, as well as the rapidity of the journey,
14

210

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION"

211

greatly increases the possibilities of such means of
transoceanic extension of species. Continental com-
merce will likewise facilitate the spread of insects
across continents. Insects which enter the hold of a
lading ship can exist through a reasonable sea voyage.
Their establishment in the new country depends upon
the finding of suitable food, and the number and sex
of the individuals of the species transported. It is
possible that in the merchandise or the packing sur-
rounding merchandise the majority of successful trans-
portations are made. Especially is this true in the
case of scale insects, since nursery stock furnishes not
only means of transportation, but at the same time sus-
tenance. The female scale, of limited powers of loco-
motion, has in a state of nature limited distribution.
Tiider present commercial conditions the spread of
these insects has been unusually great. The San Jose
scale was known in this country in 1S8S in California
only. Through commercial traffic it now exists in more
than thirty States of the Union.

Deductions. --In this study of distribution, light is
thrown upon the subject of land relationships. It is
fair to suppose that an island fauna, similar to the
adjoining mainland, and whose similarity cannot be
accounted for on the ground of transportation, can be
accounted for on the ground of a previous land con-
nection of the island with the mainland. If the fauna
of an island differs materially from that of the near-
est mainland, this seems to indicate a separation of
great antiquity, or possibly a distinct separation of
the two land areas from the beginning. The fauna of
Madagascar, for instance, differs widely from the op-

212 ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

posing mainland of Africa. This is due, it is believed,
to the fact that Madagascar has been separated by
water from 'the mainland since remote times. This be-
lief is strengthened by the notable depth of Mozam-
bique channel. From studies of this nature, together
with geologic data, islands can be divided into two
classes : continental, those once a part of the mainland,
and oceanic, those which have never been connected
with any one of the continents.

A study of the modes and possibilities of transpor-
tation and introduction of insect life is further profit-
able in determining the desirability of the entrance of
species injurious to the interests of man. And if such
inimical forms are introduced, it may be possible to
determine the original habitat of the inimical forms
and to seek their natural enemies. The question, then,
becomes : Tan these insects be safely introduced to
prey upon the injurious insect? As an illustration:
The fluted scale some years ago promised fair to greatly
curtail and possibly destroy the citrus trees of Cali-
fornia. It was found after investigation that this scale
was of Australian origin, and that in its native habitat
a ladybird beetle, both in larval and adult state, preyed
upon this scale. This beetle was successfully intro-
duced into California, where it has curtailed the in-
crease of the scale and consequently its damage to the
citrus industries.

The Struggle for Life. The progeny of a single fertile
female San Jose scale insect for a single season, not
reckoning mishaps, is over three billion individuals.
The queen of the honey-bee hive during the working-
season deposits from two to three thousand eggs daily.

THE STRUGGLE FOR LIFE 213

Five hundred eggs would be a small average for fe-
males of the insect tribe. If all of these eggs were
to bring forth individuals and all these individuals and
their progeny were to continue the reproductive pro-
cess, how long would there be sustenance for such
myriads ? It has been estimated that if the eggs of
a common house-fly should develop and each of its
progeny should find the necessary condition for growth
and development, without loss or destruction, the people
of the city in which this might happen could not get
away soon enough to escape suffocation from an atmos-
phere filled with flies. Such conditions do not exist.
Why not ? Are there certain persons detailed from
each community to prevent undue multiplication ?
Evidently not. If all these forms were to appear the
food supply would soon be exhausted. The facts are
that the percentage of eggs which develop into mature
forms is very small. Unusually favorable conditions
sometimes occur to permit a goodly percentage of the
eggs to hatch and attain maturity. At such times we
have plagues. The multitudes of maple-worms and
grasshoppers which sometimes appear are illustrations.
But these are not of regular occurrence. Since, then,
all insects do not reach maturity, what determines
which ones shall succumb and which ones shall live ?
"All live who can." It is evident that there must be
strife for existence ; that among insect forms as well as
higher animal forms there is a struggle for existence, a
struggle which for the greater part is unconsciously
carried on by the individuals concerned. Some are
destroyed by mere accidents. Aside from this the
struggle takes place: (a) Between individuals of

214

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

the same kind, contending for necessities of life, as
grasshopper and grasshopper ; a " struggle between
fellows." (6) Between insects of different kinds, the
one endeavoring to devour the other, as grasshopper
with parasitic fly or predaceons beetle ; a " struggle
between foes." (c) Between insects and conditions of
life, as the grasshopper and the unfavorable winter
climate or the chance of securing proper nourishment
in the early spring ; a " struggle with fate."

J\

FIG. 179. Long-winged grasshopper of the plains (Disaostei.ro, longipennis).
In 1873 the female of this species was unknown to scientists. The knowledge of
the existence of such an insect was based upon the finding of a male. From a pho-
tograph.

To those who live there must be accredited some
characteristics not possessed by those who perish. If
such a characteristic protects or favors the life of the
individual, this characteristic will tend to remove the
individual from the intensity of the struggle. Traits
of advantage which have been evidenced during this
struggle are the "protective devices" discussed in
Chapter IV, and chief among the others are: warning
colors, parasitism, social organization, feigning death.

Warning Colors.- - The object of protective coloration
is to conceal or disguise. The purpose of warning colors

THE STRUGGLE FOE LIFE

215

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216 ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

is the very opposite, the retention of such coloration
being to render as conspicuous as possible the form
wearing them. Some of the most striking illustrations
of warning colors are to be found among insects. The
young collector will soon be able to divide insects into
two general classes, those difficult to distinguish from
their surroundings, and those quite conspicuous. The
protection does not lie in the colors in these cases, but in
some unpleasant attribute connected with insects wear-
ing such colors. Many hymenoptera, for instance, pos-
sess stings. Stinging insects, we find, are rendered con-
spicuous by warning colors such as the contrasted dark
and yellow bands of the common wasp, the hornet, and
of many bumblebees. The red and black ladybirds
are quite conspicuous. These have been shown to be
extremely nauseous to insectivorous animals. Some
white moths and some moths made conspicuous by their
white and black colors have been refused in disgust by
insect-eating animals. Many caterpillars with the abil-
ity to emit noxious juices are rendered conspicuous
either bv striking colors or exposed positions upon their
food plants.

Parasitism. Hunger and the quest for shelter have
doubtless led to the habit of existing as unbidden guests
in or on plants, other insects, or higher animals. The
one, a parasite, lives in or on the other, a host, securing
the necessities of life from the host. The host gives up
a part or all of its vital force to the parasite. Very
few species of insects are exempt from the entertain-
ment of parasites. Parasites themselves are parasitized.
Among insects are to be found all variations of para-

THE STRUGGLE FOR LIFE

217

sit ism: the external parasite, as the sheep-tick, or the
Lird-louse, external parasites spending the whole exist-
ence upon the host; the ichneumon-fly, depositing its
egg- upon the back of some caterpillar wherein the ich-
neumon larva 1 will dwell until pupation, then to emerge
as a winged insect, an internal parasite for part of its
existence. The advantages gained by the parasite are
great, abundant food, safety, and warmth, all neces-
sities of its natural well-being. There are, however,
disadvantages. The parasite tends to degenerate
through disuse of organs. The sheep-tick was once a
winged fly, but since it spends its whole life upon the
same animal its wings were no longer used, and conse-
quently were less and less developed. The female scale
insect after settling upon plants becomes simply a
living sac, a footless, headless grub, capable of digestion
and reproduction. Parasitic insects that depend ex-
clusively upon certain forms for existence lay them-
selves liable to great reduction in numbers, even to ex-
tinction. This is likely to occur should their host
become greatly reduced in numbers, either through the
attacks of the parasites themselves, or through other
causes.

( 'hief among parasitic insects are the Hymenoptera.
These prey largely upon vegetable-feeding insects, by
dwelling as footless grubs in the bodies of the hosts, sub-
sisting upon the so-called blood of the insect.

Among Hymenoptera there are some parasitic upon
plants, and others are parasitic upon eggs of other in-
sects. This subject of insect parasitism is of so great
biologic importance as to be of vital interest to man

218 ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

himself. Insects primarily depend upon vegetation for
sustenance. So rapid are their powers of assimilation
and so prodigious their efficiency for multiplication,
that, were they to go on unheeded and unchecked, they
would in the struggle for existence overcome mammals.

FIG. 181. Cecropia larva bearing cocoons of a parasitic insect,
an ichneumon fly. ? 3 '.

Such is not the case, however. Insects are as a house
divided, one part preying upon and destroying the
other; the two succeed each other like wave upon wave.
Parasites, finding innumerable insects to prey upon,
increase so rapidly as to devour their means of support.
They in turn succumb and the host rallies, only to be
again defeated. So the struggle goes on forever.

Parasites do not confine themselves to forms gaining
an independent livelihood, but attack those of like
habits as themselves -- a phenomenon usually termed
hyper-parasitism. jSTot only do parasites attack para-
sites, but cases of secondary parasitism are numerous,
tertiary parasitism is not rare, and quaternary para-
sitism has been suggested as possible. Insect parasitism
is of wide prevalence. A few years since the trees of
the city of Washington, D. C., were almost wholly de-
foliated by the white-marked tussock-moth. The great
numbers of bodies of these insects attracted and fur-
nished food for parasites, until in the second season
ninety-seven per cent, of the caterpillars were destroyed

THE STRUGGLE FOR LIFE

219

by parasitic insects. This is only one of the many re-
corded instances.

Social Organization. We have already observed that
insects qualified to conduct their affairs in colonies and
societies are eminently successful. This congregating
together is not confined to adults. Certain caterpillars
possessing the property of emitting nauseous odors are
iiTcuarious. The meaning of this habit seems evident:

o O

when many individuals emit this offensive odor at the
same time, they become enveloped in an atmosphere
which effectively serves to repel attack.

Feigning Death. Motionless objects attract notice less
readily than moving objects. Upon the slightest dis-
turbance snme insects and many caterpillars become
inactive, and for a time remain motionless. In the case
of the attack of another insect with motives of conquest
rather than an appetite to satisfy, this inactivity may
allay further antagonism.

How can we account for the evolution or development
of these various traits? We have observed that no two
individuals arc identical, and that variation in struc-
ture and habits exists. Under "Artificial Selection"
our attention is called to the fact that under the intelli-
gent selection of man these variations can be perpet-
uated and become more marked. It remains for us to
see if some such selection of forms can be found in
nature, a selection which by unions strengthens pro-
pitious variations or traits.

Artificial Selection. - The character of our domestic
animals is largely due to the intelligent selection exer-
cised by man. We have the sagacious shepherd dog,
the bloodhound with wonderful keenness of scent, the

220

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

greyhound with weak powers of scent but keen-eyed and
fleet-footed. All these have been evolved, under man's
direction, from the progeny of the wolf. By artificial
selection the many varieties of pigeons, such as the
fantail, carriers, and pouters, have been produced from
the wild dove of Europe. Every stock-breeder and
poultry-fancier is familiar with these principles of arti-
ficial selection. Those animals or birds which possess
the desired qualities in the highest degree are retained
for breeding, while the rougher, smaller and less desir-
able stock is marketed. Artificial selection may do in
a few generations what natural selection would do even-
tually.

Natural Selection. Let us see if it is possible to find
similar selection in the natural course of animal life.
We have seen that but a small percentage of insect life
reaches maturity, due to the struggle for existence
throughout nature. Those who do survive do so by
reason of some individual peculiarities. These peculiar-
ities seem to be favorable. These favorable peculiarities,
characteristic of the survivors, are transmitted to their
offspring. Since both parents are liable to possess these
peculiarities, the offspring are liable to show the pe-
culiarity in a more marked degree. And so it will
continue with subsequent generations. Those with
favorable variations or peculiarities are liable to live
to perpetuate these traits ; these traits tend to become
more marked with each generation. The tendency is
for those having these favorable traits in a small degree
to succumb without leaving progeny. The weaker wasp
in its endeavors to capture a spider as provision for
its young is more liable to succumb than the stronger.

THE STRUGGLE F(>K UKK

The more nauseous the caterpillars are to insect-eating
animals, the less likely are they to be molested. Thus,
Nature is herself making selections. The tendency of
this struggle and of this selection by nature is to re-
tain an equilibrium, a balance of forces.. Under con-
ditions that remain unchanged from year to year and
century to century, it is possible for species to adapt
their habits and instincts to their surroundings. But
under changing conditions, such as we know have taken
place in climatic conditions and in land and water
areas, species must adapt themselves, must become mod-
ified to these altered conditions, or cease to exist. The
tendencies of this selection brought about by the strug-
gle of life seem to be to bring to perfection all forms
engaged in the struggle.

PART II

METHODS AND APPARATUS. STRUCTURE AND CLAS-
SIFICATION OF INSECTS

CHAPTER I

ACQUISITION AND PRESERVATION OF INSECT FORMS

IF there is one thing above another which commends
the study of insect life in the secondary schools, it is the

/

comparative ease with which the biological material can
be procured. The study of Zoology is essentially a
study of things, not books. And these things must be
in the student's hands. Books furnish suggestions for
study; they call attention to points liable to be over-
looked by the untrained eye. In order that the practi-
cal as well as the highest educational value can lie
attained, the forms must unquestionably be placed in
the hands of the student.

The teacher, situated far inland, who places stress
and long study upon marine forms, unless well supplied
with material, overlooks the most important element in
Natural History instruction. The student needs to
know not only the component parts of the form under
consideration, but the reasons for the existence of these
conditions. True, he may be told them. This makes
little impression. With how much more force will the
lesson come to him if he is enabled to see with his own
eyes that the colors of the grasshopper harmonize with
its natural surroundings; that the cloak of the pupa

has a capacity to resemble in color its support ; that

(222)

ACQUISITION AND PRESERVATION

223

the pronuba moth docs collect the yucca pollen and
place it in the stigmatic chamber, and that it. has
organs, belonging to no other insect of the order, pe-
culiarly developed for the purpose, than if he reads
or is simply told that some of the organs of fishes which
dwell at great depths in the sea, being adapted to sus-
taining great pressure, burst when brought to the
surface-water; that the angler, which dwells at great
depths, bears on the tip of the dorsal spine overhanging
its head a phosphorescent light that attracts small fish,
upon which the angler feeds.

MATERIALS FOR FIELD COLLECTING.

The inland teacher has a wealth of material right at
hand, easily obtained and as easily prepared. The tools
required for collecting are: a net, cyanide bottle, vials
for preserving, alcohol TO^f, formalin solution 2 c /o.

How to Make a Net. - - The frame of the net is made
of a circle of wire, in size about NV>. s. The circle is
twelve inches in diameter; the ends of the wire circle
are bent out, and are then soldered into a thin thimble
five inches long. This part of the net had best be made
by a tinner, and the cost of the same should be but a
few cents. An empty fifty-pound flour-sack, thoroughly
washed and bleached to remove the starch, may then
be fastened to this rim. The rim of the net coming in
contact with bushes wears out quickly, and therefore a
binding of heavy material is placed there to give extra
durability to the net. The thimble should not be over
an inch in diameter. Fit into the end of this thimble
a broom-stick about three feet long, and the net is ready
for use.

224

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

FIG. 182. Net and hoop.

Another Way to Make a Net The bag of the net may
be made of almost any light-weight material ; cheese-
cloth, mosquito netting or bobbinet are among the mate-
rials used. For nets to be used both in capturing insects

FJld. of c/oH,

S:

of

FIG. 183.

on the wing and for sweeping the grass, a firm quality
of cheese-cloth answers very well. The cloth should be
as wide as the circumference of the wire hoop. The

.\<'<,>risiTION AND PRESERVATION

hoop is first wound with a narrow strip of the goods, to
prevent the wire from wearing- on the cloth. The bag
should he two-and-a-quarter times as deep as the diam-
eter of the hoop.

Two bag's may be cut from one width of cloth, if
properly managed. The cloth is folded lengthwise;
the dotted lines in the accompanying figure show how
to cut the net. The seams are then sewed up, and the
wide upper part folded over the hoop and stitched down.
It is necessary to make the upper part of the same
width, in order to prevent its drawing in and decreas-
ing the diameter of the opening; so we have shown in
the figure a straight cut of two and one-half inches at
the mouth of the net.

It is well to protect the covering of the hoop by a
strip of heavy muslin sewed over it, since the rubbing
of leaves and stems soon wears out the cloth around the

wire.

Preserving Materials. Insects can be preserved in two

W 7 ays : by placing on pins, or in preserving-fluid, de-
pending upon the character of the insect or the purposes
to which it is to be put, If the insect is of delicate tex-
ture, such as a larva or a nymph, it will shrivel if
pinned. Such should be placed in 70% of alcohol or
in a two-per-cent. solution of formalin. Insects col-
lected for the purpose of dissection should be similarly
treated, since the tissues remain soft and are easily
worked. In the case of insects for immediate use in
dissection, these can be killed in W% solution of chloral
hydrate.

A cigar-box, the bottom being lined with corn or elder
15

226 ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

pith, or cork, a strap fastened around three sides, then
long enough to go over the shoulder, should be taken on
every collecting trip. Several sizes of pins should be
taken in separate vials, a killing-fluid, such as chloro-
form or gasoline, in another bottle. Then, when such
insects as butterflies, which would be destroyed by rub-
bing among other insects in the cyanide bottle, are
taken, these can be killed while still in the net by pour-
ing a little of the killing-fluid over them. In this way
they can be removed from the net without danger of
escape. The proper-sized pin can be placed through the
thorax and the insect pinned in the cigar-box, to be
removed and spread upon return to the laboratory.
With these simple and easily procured equipments,
added to a pair of keen eyes, we are ready for the
acquisition of material for our field study.

Field Collecting. Many devices are used to lure and
trap insects. Brief mention only will be made of such
devices, since the student will gain his greatest knowl-
edge of the habits of insects by collecting them in
their native haunts. The careful student can soon
learn to know for himself where certain classes of insect
life abound; what life is confined to the forest, to the
orchard, the meadow, and the open pasture; what
classes live in the running streams and what ones live in
the quiet pools.

The foregoing chapters have had something to say
about the habitat of certain prominent insects. It is
taken for granted that the first collecting will be for
land collecting. The grass contains many forms which
live near the ground. By sweeping the net back and
forth in front of you, many of these will be captured.

ACQUISITION AND PRESERVATION 227

Tree and bush life, insects which live upon foliage, can
be procured in the same way by sweeping the leaves of
the trees and shrubs. Kocks, logs, and piles of leaves
are the habitations of certain forms. Overturn such
abodes of insects and see what ones live there.

Young collectors are apt to overlook certain forms to
which great importance must be attached. Galls in
weeds, upon leaves, and twigs of trees are readily ob-
served and easily taken. Every one who has carefully
observed the golden-rod stalk in the early spring is
aware of spherical enlargements upon the stalk. Col-
lect a number of these in the early spring, place them
under a glass tumbler, and watch them from day to
day. You will soon have ascertained the cause of the
swelling. Then, caterpillars must not be overlooked.
They represent developing life. The changes taking-
place in such forms are fraught with interest. Place
some of each species in alcohol or formalin, and bring
the others to the laboratory to be reared. Water life
teems with interesting forms. In ponds and sluggish
streams, where vegetation fringes the shores, with a
common garden rake immature insects and indeed some
fully developed insects can be brought to shore.

Note-Book. Many insects spend much of their lives
skimming over the water, and others live upon the
vegetation growing out of the water. And so, in col-
lecting, the acquisition of materials is but one of the
considerations. The blank book for field-notes should
be a record of every insect taken. The geographic
location should be noted.

The notes upon insects taken should give the day and
year, time of day, kind of d;iy.--hot or cold, clear or

228

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

cloudy. The weather influences insect life very per-
ceptibly. The character of the insect's surroundings -
that is, taken under stones or logs, or feeding upon
certain plants --is also of importance. When insects
are found on plants or trees, an opportunity is afforded
the student to acquaint himself further with the flora of
his vicinity.

This point of the food plants of insects is a very
important one, especially in the collection of scale in-
sects and plant-lice.

Map of the Vicinity. Every student should be pro-
vided with a map of the vicinity of his school. This
map should show the section lines, all streams of any
importance, ranges of hills, and places of historic inter-
est. An idea of the scope of such a map is shown in
the illustration. By referring to this the student can
trace his various collecting trips and locate the exact
position of his captures.

Manner of Keeping Records. What is the most con-
venient way to keep these notes? Simply place on the
pin beneath the insect a very small card bearing a
number, which might be called the accession number;
that is, the specimen can be numbered beginning with
1, and going on, no two insects bearing the same
number, unless they happen to be of the same species,
taken at the same time and under like conditions. A
corresponding number is entered in the field-book, and
opposite this number are recorded the notes and obser-
vations upon the insect. Remarks may be added upon
the habits of the insect observed ; whether active or
sluggish; resemblances to the surroundings; attempts
at defense; and other points which suggest themselves

ACQUISITION AN1> i'K KSKKVATION

FIG. 184. Map of collecting vlcluity. An aid In note-taking.

230 ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

at the time of note-taking. These notes should be
written in the field while the collecting is going on.
Observations should always be written at the time they
are made.

Collecting at Lights. Insects can be collected at elec-
tric lights ; but in the collecting nothing more is ac-
complished than the acquisition, of the things, and the
knowledge that such insects are attracted to lights.

" Sugaring."- - Many moths and some other insects
are to be brought to notice by a process termed ''sugar-
ing." This consists of placing, before dark, on trunks
of trees, fences and similar objects, a paste of sugar
and water. Dark-brown sugar is preferable. The
paste should be of proper consistency to apply with a
brush, but not so thin that it will flow from the object
to which it is applied. Cover a space about three
inches wide and several inches long on the trees and
fence-posts. Do this about sunset. Return after dark
with a common lantern in hand, and take such insects
as are found feeding upon this sugar paste, 'by placing
the cyanide bottle over each one. Since there may be
many insects at the sugar, it is well to lie provided with
a. number of wide-mouthed cyanide bottles. By this
method of sugaring some species of moths can be taken,
species which are rarely seen under any other condition.

Preservation of Insects. For reasons already given,
those insects which are to lie placed in preserving-fluids
will need no other attention, unless the fluids become
discolored, then a change of fluid is necessary. A
small card bearing the lot number, the writing being
made with carbon pencil, should be placed in the bottle
with the specimen. Labels pasted on the outside fre-

ACQUISITION AND PRESERVATION

231

quently become detached. Remember, that specimens
without adequate data, such as covered in the points
mentioned, are practically worthless for cabinet use.

Insect-pins are a kind of pins made especially for the
purpose. The kinds much used are Klaeger numbers
2, 3, 4, 5, length l, and Carlsbader numbers 2, 3, 4,
5, length H inches. These pins are numbered accord-
ing to their fineness from 00 (the finest in the trade)
to 10 (the coarsest). The finer pins are difficult to
handle. It will be more convenient for the beginner to
mount small insects on points or angles to be described
later.

Upon returning from a collecting trip, the insects
should be removed from the cyanide bottles, provided
all have been at least one-half hour therein. From
cyanide bottles place upon dry blotting-paper, and re-
move all foreign particles with a soft, dry brush. All
specimens should be mounted before they become dry
and brittle.

Insects should be pinned through the middle of the
thorax (mesothorax) when this, as is generally the
case, is well developed. Coleoptera, however, should
In- pinned through the right wing-cover, since if the pin
is passed down between the wing-covers these will
spread apart. Hemiptera should be pinned down
through the triangular piece behind the thorax. This
piece is called the scutel.

The pin should always project about one-half inch
above the insect, to facilitate handling. To insure
evenness in this regard, a small piece of cork inserted
one-half inch in a piece of small glass tubing can be
used as a gauge. This can be passed over the head of

232

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

the pin, and the pin or insect, as the case may be,
pushed down until the length of the pin above the body
of the insect equals the distance the cork is inserted in
the glass tube. Small insects can be pinned by placing
on cork or pith and held between fingers or forceps.
Insects too small to be mounted in this way can be
gummed with any good quality of glue to card-points

previously placed the proper dis-
tance upon pins. These points can
be cut with a pair of scissors, from
cardboard. Clip diagonally across
a strip about a half-inch wide, plac-
ing the scissors about one-eighth of
an inch from the end of the strip.
Do not make the tip pointed, but
blunt. The next cut, made straight
across the strip, will give the
second cardboard triangle, and so
on. Place pins through the
wide end of the card triangle,
a little glue at the apex. Place the insect on across
the tip of the card. The glass tube-gauge can be used
to locate properly the distance of the card from the top
of the pin. Small flies and small lepidoptera are best
mounted on fine pin-points located in small oblong
pieces of cork or pith. This oblong piece, like the card
triangle, is supported at the proper distance from the
head of an insect-pin of suitable size. Insects with long
bodies, such as dragon-flies and walking-sticks, some-
times require a narrow strip of cardboard pinned be-
neath them, or a fine wire passed through the body, as

a. b.

FIB. 185. a, insect glued
on card-point ; b, insect
mounted on fine pin-point.

ACQUISITION AND PRESERVATION

233

a support for the long- abdomen. Insects when pinned
should be put in a safe place to dry, where they are not
liable to be broken and where mice cannot get at them;
for mice consider insects, even dry ones, tidbits.

Lepidoptera, and other insects with broad and flat-
tened wings, should have their wings spread. This
can be accomplished with the aid of a spreading-board.
This board is made of two pieces of thin pine boards
laid parallel and fastened by braces at the ends, and if
the boards are long there should be a center brace.
There should be enough space between the boards to
admit the bodies of the insects to be spread. This space

FIG. 186. Spreading-board for Lepidoptera.

between the boards should be covered from beneath
with sheet cork or corn pith, to hold the pin upon which
the insect to be spread is mounted. The braces should
be high enough to allow the pins holding the insect to
pass through without touching the supporting-table.
To spread the insect, first pin through the rnesothorax,
then place firmly in spreading-board, by the pin pass-
ing through the cork or pith. Pin with common domes-
tic pins a narrow strip of paper across the base of the
wings, the pins being fastened a little in advance and be-

234

ELEMENTAKY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

liind the wing-margins. Use one of tlie dissecting-needles
(page 252) to move the wings forward into position.
This needle should be placed behind one of the strong
nerves of the wing, to prevent tearing the membrane.
When the wings are in proper position, tighten the
basal strips and place another (somewhat wider) strip
across the outer half of each of the wings. Fasten with
domestic pins in the same manner as the basal strip was
fastened.

Cabinets. -Insect-cases are of many devices. Each is
suited to its purpose. The high-school collection should
be placed in a cabinet that has been erected for the
purpose, one that will insure the safety of the collec-
tions, and one easy of access for reference and study.

One of the prerequisites of a museum case is, that it
be so constructed as to make it practically impossible for
museum pests, other insects which live upon dried in-
sects and other museum collections, to gain entrance.
Chief among these pests are the little beetles of the
buffalo-moth family. Frames can be made of soft-pine
strips, one-half inch thick, to tit AVI thin the case. These
frames are covered above and beloAV Avith a heavy qual-
ity of good Avhite paper, pasted to the strips. This
paper frame is dropped Avithin the case, and serves to
hold the insect-pins in place. The insects can be ar-
ranged in roAvs, Avith labels on the left of each series.
Four specimens of a kind constitute a series.

A handy case is one the size of which is in inches
10x14x5 (outside measurement). This case consists of
two parts of equal size, each being 2^ inches deep. The
corners are dovetailed. On the inside of one of the com-
partments a strip extends from the bottom on each side

ACQUISITION AND PKKSKKYATION"

235

up above the box itself about three-quarters of an inch.
This is to insure a closed joint when the box is closed.
The compartments* are fastened together on one side 1
with suitable hinges, and on the other, when closed, with
a hook.

The wood in this case should be of some non-resinous
kind. Cardboard pasted on light wooden frames made

FIG. 187. A student's cabinet.

to lie within the case fastened in the bottom of each
compartment will serve as a receptacle for the pins of
mounted insects. For this case, boards one-half inch
thick are the proper size. This student case will hold
insects in each half, and can be placed on a shelf, up-
right, in a position similar to a book on a shelf.

Arrangement of Insects. It will be found convenient
to fill all cases with insects of the same order. Within
the order arrange the specimens under suborders, fam-
ilies, genera, and species. For the arrangement and

236 ELEMKXTAKY STUDIES IX IXSKCT LIFE

study of insects, several sheets of cork or large blocks
to which a layer of corn pith has been glued will prove
valuable. These will hold the specimens while being
mounted, transferred, or studied.

Relaxing Insects. -Frequently it is desired to spread
or pin insects which are rigid. These can be relaxed.
A vessel half filled with sand saturated with water, then
closely covered, will furnish a moist chamber. In this
upon heavy blotting-paper place the insects to be re-
laxed. Allow to remain from one to three days. They
must not remain too long, else mold will destroy them.
A few drops of carbolic acid will retard the growth of
mold. When the insects have become relaxed they
can be handled as readily as when captured.

Mailing Insects. Students, too, will frequently find
it desirable to mail insects in exchange for others, or in
order to secure proper identification. This is fre-
quently done. Many exchanges are conducted by mail,
and many insects are sent to proper authorities for de-
termination. Pinned insects must be firmly pinned in
a box having a sheet of cork securely fastened to the
bottom. The box must be tightly covered and wrapped
loosely, first with cotton and then with excelsior. A
heavy paper should cover all. The excelsior and cotton
are to modify the jars and shocks which the package will
receive in transit. Specimens in preserving-fluid can be
mailed in a regular mailing-case made for the purpose.
A cylindrical piece of soft wood can be bored out to
accommodate a fair-sized vial well wrapped in cotton.
This closed with cork of required size, serves the pur-
pose very well.

Various means and devices will occur to the ingen-

AM) I'KKSKUVATIOISr

237

ions student in his studies, and sneh when perfected
will be valuable.

Dealers in entomological supplies, from which such
as forceps, pins, sheet cork, etc., can be obtained :

The Bausch & Lomb Optical Company, 513-543 N. St. Paul
street, Rochester, N. Y.

John Akhurst, 78 Ashland Place, Brooklyn, N. Y.

M. Abbott Frazar, 93 Sudbury street, Boston, Mass.

Entomological Society of Ontario, Victoria Hall, London,
Ontario.

(Jueen & Co., 1010 Chestnut street, Philadelphia, Pa.

Charles C. Riedy, 532 Montgomery street, San Francisco,
Calif.

Dealers in optical instruments, from whom lenses,
microscopes, etc., can be obtained:

The Bausch & Lomb Optical Company, New York and Roch-
ester, N. Y.

Eimer & Amend, 205-211 Third avenue, New York city.

(jueen & Co., 1010 Chestnut street, Philadelphia, Pa.

The Franklin Educational Company, Harcourt street, Bos-
ton, Mass.

William Krafft, 411 W. Fifty-ninth street, New York city.

Spencer Lens Company, 546 Main street, Buffalo, N. Y.

REFERENCE BOOK.

Directions for Collecting and Preserving Insects, C. V. Riley.
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C., 1892. Price, 25
cents.

238 ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

CHAPTER II

INCOMPLETE METAMORPHOSIS

THE GRASSHOPPER

THE materials required for the study of the develop-
ment and habits of the grasshopper are simple and
within the possibilities of anyone: a breeding-cage, a
pair of sharp eyes, a hand-lens, and an insect net.

The breeding-cage can be very simply made by cover-
ing with wire netting an open space left on each side
of a good-sized store-box, and placing a quantity of
sand in the bottom of the box. This should be placed
where a moderate amount of sunlight will reach it
during a part of the day. Young grasshoppers arc tin-
ones to be desired, and these can be recognized by the
absence of wings, and the presence of wing-pads in-
stead. In the very first stages of the grasshopper's life
even these wing-pads are absent. Many of these young
grasshoppers may be taken without the aid of a net.

A net will facilitate the work greatly, and will also
be required in other branches of the study. (See page
224 for directions for making net.)

A good hand-lens can be procured from the jeweler
or from some optical firm. ( See page 2:)7 for addresses
of firms.) Of the lenses more moderate in price, the
one known as the Coddington is the best. In buying a
lens it will be well to purchase one that will work
upon the home-made dissecting microscope described on
page 251.

METAMORPHOSIS

239

Acquisition of Material The breeding-cage well made,
equipped and in position, the hand-lens and net as ac-
companiments for your bright eyes, you are ready to
seek young grasshoppers along the roadside, or in the
meadows or cultivated fields. Young grasshoppers may
be found at any time of the year, but are most common
in the early spring. They can be best taken in growing
vegetation, such as meadows and pasture-lands, by sweep-
ing, and along the roadsides by dropping the net over
them. As a means for carrying them from the field to
your breeding-cage a pasteboard shoe-box with a V-
shaped trap-door cut in the lid is a handy appliance. It
is simple, and a very effective means of transportation.
When the grasshopper is caught, the apex of the trap-
dour is pushed down witli the finger and the insect
dropped in. The pasteboard has enough spring in itself
to close the opening.

Care of Breeding-Cages. Grasshoppers are not at all
delicate in their tastes, and will adapt themselves
greatly to existing circumstances. They prefer,
however, the cultivated grasses, cereals, and clover.
They also eat readily the leaves of young shoots of
peach trees. A number of weeds which grow upon
cultivated land are also readily partaken of by these
insects; the petals of the opening flowers of the com-
mon sunflower are not objected to as a diet by some
species of grasshopper.

Great care and attention should be given to the
breeding-cage, and all dry vegetation and grass should be
removed daily. It is well, however, to keep in the ca^e
all the time a few long stalks of weeds or other vegeta-

240 ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

tion, for the nymphs to ascend and cling to while molt-
ing.

Some Points for Observation. - The time of appearance
of wing-pads ; the time of day when the molt takes
place ; the color-markings of the insect hef ore molting
and after molting ; the number of molts ; date of
maturity ; relative positions of the narrow wing-pad
and the wide wing-pad in the nymph, and of the nar-
row \viiiiis (the tegmina) and of the wings in the adult;
time, manner and place of ovi position. As the work de-
velops the student will find main- other interesting facts
to increase the volume of his notes.

THE DRAGON-PLY

The study of tin- development and growth of the
grasshopper familiarizes us with the incomplete meta-
morphosis of an insect which passes its whole life on
land. jVlany insects spend a part of their existence in
the water. The dragon-flies are insects with incomplete
metamorphosis.

To rear these insects is not a difficult task. In the
rearing many delightful as well as instructive observa-
tions will be made. The first thing to do is to obtain
the insects. Each group of dragon-flies has its own
peculiar place. The nymphs and it is these we will
seek to find --of one division (Gomphince) live in the
sediment at the bottom of pools, frequently pools with
little or no vegetation on the bottom. Two other di-
visions (Agrioiiintt' and Arxclniiiiw} are to be found
among submerged vegetation.

Since all of these live for a considerable length of
time in the water, permanent pools and streams will

METAMORPHOSIS 241

be the places to look for them. In the early spring
they can be drawn ashore with a garden-rake; Inter
in the season a water-net, one with coarse cloth to allow
the water to pass freely through, must be used. In the
summer-time the vegetation would interfere with the
working of the rake. They will make their presence
known bv endeavoring to extricate themselves from the

j CJ

rakings. Such as are taken can be placed in a bucket
of water, to be carried home in safety. A water-pail,
half-full of water, with a few twigs or sticks extending
well above the surface of the water, is the kind of
place to keep these nymphs. The bucket should be
covered with mosquito netting, to prevent the escape
of any which may emerge. A good meal of mosquito
larva? (wigglers) once or twice a week will keep these
nymphs thriving. The bucket should be kept out-
doors, where the nymphs can get the benefit of the
sunlight.

In collecting it will be well to chose only the oldest
nymphs for that season's study. The older ones have
longer wing-pads, which extend to about the middle of
the abdomen. These will emerge during the same
season.

The points for the student to observe are:

Method of feeding. For the purpose of answering
this question, several can be fed in a glass vessel filled
with water.

Time of day of emergence.

Actions during transformation to adult. I^ote es-
pecially the color of the insect just free from the
nymphal case, and the characteristic colors as they
appear.
-16

242

KI-KMK. \TAUY STl'DIKS 1 .N INSECT I, IKK

These observations should be carefully written clown,
preceded by the field-notes. The field-notes should
state the location where taken, the character of the
water and vegetation, and the abundance or scarcity
of the nymphs.

COMPLETE METAMORPHOSIS

SWALLOWTAIL BUTTERFLY

In the consideration of the black swallowtail butterfly,
several questions have been left to be answered, and it is
to be expected that other queries will arise in pursuit of
answers to:

How many times does the caterpillar molt ?

How manv broods of butterflies come forth in your

/ i/

locality during the summer season ?

In what positions, besides the one given, do you
find the eggs ?

Place one of the caterpillars upon a pane of glass
on the window, and note how it endeavors to ascend
the pane.

Nowhere within the realm of Xatural History are
biologic studies more easily conducted, or the facts ac-
quired more remarkable or interesting, than in the
study of the fascinating phases relating to life history
and habits. Investigations can be most practicably con-
ducted by establishing these caterpillars in surroundings
as nearly natural as possible, where they can be fre-
quently observed, and at times constantly watched.

Points to be observed are: temperature, moisture,
proper food, and right conditions for pupation.

Care of Larvae. - The manner of caring for the larvae
of the black swallowtail will apply to the rearing of

METAMORPHOSIS

243

other caterpillars. Caterpi liars should be taken with
their food plant, the stein of plant placed in a bottle
filled with moist sand, and this surrounded with soil
in a flower-pot. In order to keep the larvae from roving,
a number of devices can be used.

Breeding-Cage. A larnp-chimney or lantern-globe
with Swiss muslin tied over the top (Fig. 188) can be
placed over the food plant, or where many larvae are

being studied, a box can be well
used. The soil must contain about
the same degree of moisture that
shaded earth will contain ; it must
not, be soaked, but can be kept moist,
in the case of the flower-pot, by keep-
ing water iu the saucer beneath the
flower-pot. The earth in the screened
box can be sprinkled lightly, but fre-
quently enough to retain the right de-
gree of moisture. Many larva." 1 enter
the ground to pupate. Should the soil
be too moist the pupa will mold and
die. Should it be too dry the insect will not develop
properly.

A fresh supply of food should be furnished daily,
and all litter removed from the breeding-cage. It will
very often be found impracticable to remove a part of
the old food when new food is introduced; since it is
not best to disturb the caterpillar, but to wait until it
has moved from the old food material to the new.

Records. Always keep beside the breeding-cage pen-
cil and note-paper, to make notes of every change just

FIG. 188. A conven-
ient breeding-cage.

244 ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

at the time when the observation is taken. At no other
time can it he so well or so accurately described. In
fact, every observation, both in the field and laboratory,
date of capture, locality, food plant, and other points
suggested at the time, should be carefully set down in
the pocket note-book, and this together with the breed-
ing-cage notes placed in ink in a larger record book for
permanent reference. Every study undertaken .should
be with a definite aim in view, and the habit should be
early formed of making accurate observations. Should
the note-taking and observations be dilatory, the prac-
tical and educative results will, it must be emphasized,
be of little or no value.

Care of Pupae. When the larva* have pupated, the
breeding-cage must be removed to the cellar or to some
place where the temperature is uniform and moderate.
Though extreme cold may be endured, sudden changes
must be guarded against.

The Adult. When after due care and watchfulness
the mature insect has come forth as the reward, it may
not be a butterfly, but a moth or a skipper. Compari-
son with the antennae (Figs. 1G7, 168, 1C9) will in the
majority of cases enable the observer to ascertain to
which class the insect in hand belongs. Is there any
difference between the pupa-case of a moth and the pupa-
case of a butterfly ?

THE HOUSE-FLY OR BLUEBOTTLE-PLY

For the study of the life history of the fly, the blue-
bottle-fly lends itself readily.

Egg. The egg of the bluebottle-fly can be procured
by exposing fresh meat for several days. In winter-
time, warm days should be selected for the exposure.

METAMORPHOSIS

245

Larva. When the eggs have hatched, the larva- may
be reared upon bran. Note the changes during growth.
Describe the process of
pupation.

The Pupa. What is its
color ? Does the adult
emerge through the side
or the end of the pupa-
case ? How does the

front of the head of the FIG 189 Foot of house . fly . Greatly
newly emerged fly dif- enlarged.

fer from that of the same fly several hours later ? How
is the opening in the pupa-case made?

Adult. Place fly under a glass vessel (a plain, thin
water-glass will do). Rest the inverted glass upon
black paper on which a few grains of granulated sugar
have been placed. ISTote the manner in which the fly
feeds upon the sugar. Place within the glass vessel
substances sweet and sour, neutral and of various colors,
such as different colored sugar, salt, molasses, vinegar.
What substances seem to attract the fly most ? What
particular quality seems to form the greatest means of
attraction ? AVhat senses seem to be relied upon in the
discernment of these various substances?

COMPANION BOOKS.

A Manual for the Study of Insects, .1. H. and A. B. Corn-
stock. Comstock Publishing Company. Ithaca, N. Y., 1895.
Price, $3.75, net; postage, 34 cents.

The Life of a Butterfly, S. H. Scudder. Henry Holt & Com-
pany. New York, 1893. Price, $1.25.

Everyday Butterflies, S. H. Scudder. Houghton, Mifflin &
Company. Price, $2.

First Report of the U. S. Entomological Commission. ( This

246

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

deals at length with the Rocky Mountain Locust.) U. 8. De-
partment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

Catalogue of the Odonata (Dragon-flies) of the vicinity of
Philadelphia, with an introduction to the study of this group of
insects, P. P. Calvert. Transactions Amer. Ent. Society, Phila-
delphia. Price, $1.

The Natural History of Aquatic Insects, L. C. Mial. Macmil-
lan & Co. London and New York, 1895. Price, $1.75.

On the Origin and Metamorphosis of Insects, J. Lubbock.
Nature Series. Macmillan & Company. New York and Lon-
don, 1895.

The Butterfly Book, W. J. Holland. Doubleday & McClure.
New York, 1899. Price, $3.

Moths and Butterflies, Mary C. Dickinson. Ginn & Co.
Boston.

Nature Study and Life, C. F. Hodges. Ginn & Co. Boston.
Price, $1.75.

HABITS OF ANTS

247

CHAPTER IV

THE HABITS OF ANTS

ANTS can be readily studied in artificial homes.
For this reason much will be expected from the in-
vestigations of the student. The accompanying sketch
shows a board with a trench, a moat, chiseled out around

FIG. 190. Board plan for an artificial ant-nest.

the outer half. This moat is one-half inch wide and
one-half inch deep; it should be well painted, to pre-
vent the escape of any water; then fill with water to
keep the ants within bounds. A strip of wood should
be nailed across each of the grain ends, to prevent the
board from warping. Place in the center of this board
a pane of glass ; surround the same with narrow strips
of wood about an inch thick ; place on this glass several
small narrow strips about the thickness of the ant's
body ; these strips are to support another pane of glass
equal in size with the first. Sprinkle a layer of sand

248 ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

on the under glass, about the thickness of the thin strips
of wood ; then break a corner off the upper glass and
place it on the top of the layer of sand and strips.

Now yon are ready for the ants. The object, you
see, is to have a place where the ants cannot get away,
and yet where they can have some freedom and a home
which will be open for your inspection. That they may
live in the dark when not under observation, it will
be necessary for you to cover this glass house with a
board. The board can be lifted from time to time and
the workings inside observed. You will readily see,
also, that it will be necessary to have the right amount
of earth or sand, else, if there is too much, the workings
and tunnelings will be beneath the surface.

Ants are not hard to find under surface rocks, logs,
and in old stumps. In quest of these, a garden trowel
and covered tin bucket are the only things necessary.
In collecting ants to establish in homes there is one
form necessary - - that is the queen ant, easily recog-
nized by her large size. When she is found it is a small
matter to collect a number of workers, their eggs, larva?
and pupa?. Place earth, rubbish and all, in your bucket,
cover them and bring them to the artificial nest ; pour
the whole mass on the upper pane of glass, remove the
surface rubbish by degrees, and soon the ants will begin
to work their way between the panes of glass through
the broken corner which you have left as an opening
for them.

Colonies inhabiting hollow r branches of sumac or
elder are easily transferred. On one occasion a baking-
powder can containing a hollow sumac knot, the home
of a full colony of ants, was brought to the laboratory.

HABITS OF ANTS

249

It was late in the evening, so that no attempt was made
to transfer the ants at that time. During the night the
little workers had discovered a hole in the side of the
can, previously stopped with a toothpick ; this they
chewed away. When found in the morning they had
taken themselves, their queen, their pupa 1 , eggs and
larva 1 , and were comfortably established in a piece of
glass tubing which chanced to be near by. Here, under
cover of a pasteboard box, these ants were an interesting
source of study and experimentation for the students
until the summer vacation, six weeks later. They were
country ants, and had to learn to like city ways. For
instance, at first they ran around over granulated sugar,
paying no attention to it; hut later, fed readily upon it.
The experiments conducted with these ants you can
likewise carry on.

/

Ascertain what foods they will eat.

Remove several from the nest, and return them the
next day.

Place near the entrance to the nest a few ants of
the same species but from another nest, and note the
result.

Study the action of the ants in their artificial nest,
the character of the tunnelings they build, how they
treat the young, the larva?, the pupa 1 , and the queen.

Secure a copy of "Ants, Bees, and Wasps," by Sir
John Lubbock, the reading of which will suggest many
valuable experiments upon the actions and instincts of
this very colony of ants which you have established.

250

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

CHAPTEE V
FORM AND FUNCTION

HEIST the study of Physiology is under
way, comparative anatomy lends in-
terest and adds value to the instruc-
tion. The material may be procured
easily, and the few facilities required
for bringing the subject-matter intel-
ligently before the class favor an anatomical study of
the skeleton or external anatomy of the grasshopper.
The skeleton of the grasshopper, 1 the history of which
we have already studied, will be the subject considered.
A word in beginning concerning skeletons. As every
student of physiology is taught, skeletons are of two
kinds: endo-skeletons, or skeletons within the body and
surrounded by muscles; exo-skeletons, or those without
the body, having all muscles on the interior. The skele-
tal structure of man comes under the first class ; the
rigid outer structure of insects under the second class.
Every one who has studied human physiology remem-
bers among the first topics to be found in the text is
1 Uses of the Skeleton," and in answer to the question,
" What are the uses of the skeleton ? " if he were per-
mitted to use another's language instead of his own he
would say, " To give form to the body, to protect the
delicate organs, to furnish attachments for the mus-
cles, to serve as levers for locomotion." And when an

^Melanoplus differentialis.

FOKM AND FUNCTION

251

apt student takes up the study of the skeleton of the
grasshopper he will readily see that its skeleton serves
identically the same purpose as the human skeleton.
The integral parts of the human skeleton we call bones;
the separate portions of the insect skeleton we term
sclerites. That constituent which gives bones their firm-
ness we commonly speak of as lime; that which lends
rigor to the sclerite is called cliitine.

An examination of the body-wall of an insect shows it
to be composed of a number of distinct pieces or sclerites.
The lines separating these pieces are known as sutures.
Sutures here, just as in the anatomy of the human skele-
ton, are not freely movable joints. That term is re-
served for those articulations which are freely movable ;
for example, joints of the locust's leg.

FIG. 191. Plan for simple microscope stand.

Aids in the Laboratory. In addition to the appliances,
net and lens, already mentioned, the following simply
constructed materials will be of assistance :

It will at times be found advantageous to have the
specimens stationary, in order that the parts being stud-
ied can be manipulated under the lens. For this pur-
pose, Figure 191 shows a simple dissecting microscope
stand, made from a 4 x 4-inch pine block nine inches

252 ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

long, with two corners beveled in accordance with dimen-
sions marked in the figure. On the side, at the middle
of the four-inch table, a metal post about one-fourth inch
in diameter is set in the block, and extends four inches
above the table. Around this post one end of a wire
sufficiently heavy to hold the weight of the lens is
wrapped three or four times ; the other end is made into
a loop, to hold the lens. The coil on the post will slide
up and down, enabling the operator to focus the lens.
In some cases a small square of glass fastened on the
dissecting-table will be found helpful. This enables the
needles to cut more accurately. When the specimen is
to be held in a stationary position, fasten to the table a
slice from a large cork, or a small slip of .soft wood, then
pin to this the insect in the position desired.

Dissecting-needles can be made by driving the head of
a sewing-needle into a wooden penholder or stick of
similar size. Two of these needles will be required.

Two grades of pencil will be required, a soft pencil
and a hard pencil.

The main qualification in a note-book is the paper.
This should be white, of good weight, unruled, and well
finished. These note-books can be made. The paper of
the desired quality, high-grade flat cap of proper weight,
for example, can be purchased and cut into pages about
8^ by 6| inches. These can be kept in an old book
cover, or heavy cardboard cover. When a drawing has
been satisfactorily finished on a sheet, the sheet, accom-
panied by its notes, can be laid aside in serial order.
It will be found advisable to make each drawing large
and distinct. It is advisable to place only one drawing
upon a page. Should more than one drawing appear

FORM AND FUNCTION

253

upon the same page, the possibility for confused im-
pressions arises.

Preparation of Specimen. The most humane and at
the same time the most convenient way to prepare the
live specimens for anatomical study is to place them for
from one-half to three-quarters of an hour in a cyanide
bottle. Any wide-mouthed bottle will do. Cnt a piece
of cyanide of potassium, 1 the size of a walnut, into small
pieces, place in the bottle and cover with plaster of

-

FIG. 192. Cyanide bottle.

paris, add enough water to moisten the plaster of paris,
allow to stand uncovered until dry ; then put a circular
piece of blotting-paper which will cover this plaster
formation in the bottom of the bottle. This paper will
keep the insect dry, and when the blotter becomes very
moist it should be replaced by another. A roll of
blotting-paper is frequently placed around the inside of

1 Cyanide of potassium is a deadly poison. Great care should be exercised
while handling it, to avoid inhaling the fumes or bringing the substance in contact
with the mouth.

254 ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

the bottle, to aid further in taking up the moisture which
collects therein.

Terms Used in Denning Position and Direction. With a
specimen of the yellow grasshopper in hand it will be
evident to the observer that the terms " up " and
" down," " before " and " behind," and kindred terms
denoting direction, are frequently indefinite in describ-
ing the location of the parts of an insect. Should these
terms be applied to an insect, the body being so small
and its position so easily changed, it is evident that some
confusion and frequent ambiguity would be likely to
attend.

In locating and describing parts, not only in the study
of insect life but also in other branches of Zoology, a
series of terms adapted to the requirements have come
into use. These the student will do well to understand
fully in application and significance.

The cephalic direction is headward. This does not
necessarily refer to the head, but refers to anything ex-
tending in the direction of the head ; for instance, in
Figuie 202 the front margin of the wing will be spoken
of as the cephalic margin of the wing. The adverb de-
noting direction headward is ceplialad; that is, one can
say the front wing is ceplialad of the hind wing.

The direction opposite from cephalic is the caudal di-
rection, or tailward, and is used in just the same way
as the term cephalic direction. The adverb from this
is caudad.

Lateral directions refer to points on the right or left
side of the body. Laterad is the adverbial expression
used.

The ventral direction, or downward, refers to what

AND FUNCTION'

255

might be spoken of as the under side of the insect,
that part of the body which lies nearest the ground. The
adverb is ventrad, and is used as in the preceding.

The other direction would necessarily have reference
to the back of the insect, and dorsal direction is the term
used here, and dorsad is the adverb.

Now, in order that you may understand the applica-
tion of these terms, refer to Figure 202, and notice that
the two wings extend laterad from the body, and that the
antenna is cephalad of the base of the wing, and like-
wise that the wing is caudad from the antenna. The
utility and application of these terms will be more read-
ily understood with the specimen in hand and the ana-
tomical study in progress.

EXTERNAL DIVISIONS OF THE BODY.

An examination of the whole body will readily show
three divisions: the head, the thorax, and the abdomen.

The Head, apparently one piece, contains the mouth,
eyes, and the long thread-like appendages known as the
antennae.

The Thorax is in the central part of the body, furnish-
ing attachment for the wings and legs.

The Abdomen is a slender portion extending caudad

from the thorax.

TITE HEAD.

Fixed Parts of the Head.

Compound Eyes. (Fig. 193, J5) Prominently situated
upon the lateral portions of the dorsal half of the head are
the two prominent compound eyes. The hand-lens will
reveal the honeycomb or network structure upon the
surface of these eyes. If a compound microscope is at

256

ELEMENTARY STUDIES

INSECT LIFE

hand, cut off one of the eyes, wash well in water, and
place the head covering under the microscope, using a
low-power lens, Note the hexagonal divisions of the eye.

Each of these divisions con-
stitutes the cornea for a sim-
ple eye. There being many
of these in each of the eyes
as seen externally, it is emi-
nently proper to call them
compound eyes. Each of the
simple eyes of which they are
composed is termed ocellus
(plural, ocelli).

Simple Eyes. Between the
compound eyes in the front
part oi the face are located
three bright, shining spots.
One can be found immedi-
ately in front of the upper
half of each compound eye,
and one between the antennal

sockets. These are the simple eyes. (Fig. 193, l>, 1), l>.}
Epicranium. The epicranium is that part of the cra-
nial box which surrounds and holds the compound eyes
and the simple eyes, and extends down the face to a dis-
tinctly marked transverse line. The epicranium is di-
vided into three parts.

Front. - The front is that part which is on the cephalic
aspect of the head.

Gense. -The lateral portions of the epicranium are
called the gense, or cheeks.

FIG. 193. Front view of head
with clypeus and labrum removed
to show mandibles in position, a,
antenna ; 6, ocelli ; B, compound
eye ; C, mandible ; d, maxilla ; e,
maxillary palpus ; /, labium ; g, la-
bial palpus. Enlarged about five
times.

FOKM AND FUNCTION

257

Vertex. - That portion of the epicranium which lies
on the top or dorsal aspect of the head is known as the
vertex.

Clypeus. Just helow or ventrad of the front of the
epicranium is the transverse suture, pre-
viously mentioned, that separates the
front of the epicranium from the broad,
rather short sclerite. This sclerite is the
clypeus. (Fig-. 1.94.)

' ' , r , V, . ,. , , , . FIG. 194. Clypeus

Make a drawing ol the cephalic and labrum . En .
aspect of tlie head (that part of the lar ^ ed about five

times.

head which extends directly forward,
and which might be commonly spoken of as the front
view of the head), showing and naming all the fixed
parts. In making these drawings the greatest care
should be given to the accurate delineation and proper
proportions of the parts, without any attempt whatever
being made at shading 1 . In the majority of cases shad-
ing will only tend to mask the details which must neces-
sarily be brought out. The accompanying illustrations
are given simply as aids, and not with the intention
that any attempt whatever shall be made at their repro-
duction. The line-drawings will have a very different
appearance from shaded illustrations, and will go much
farther toward cultivating the powers of observation in
the student.

Movable Parts of the Head.

Antennae (singular antenna) (Fig. 194, a}. Just
between the compound eyes arise the two many-jointed
antenme. Make a drawing of these antennae, showing

the number of joints.
17

258

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

Mouth-parts. Taken collectively, all the organs which
aid in the mastication of food are called the month-parts.

Labrum. The freely movable flap which is joined to
the ventral margin of the clypens is called the labrum,
or npper lip. (Fig. 19-1.)

Mandibles.- By removing the labriim and clypens the
mandibles become visible. (Figs. 193, <-, 195, c.} Note

FIG. 196. Inner view of
maxilla, ic, lacinia ; gl t

FIG. 195. Front view of head, galea . p ^ palpus ; m , me m-

with mandibles spread out. c, brane. Enlarged about five

mandible ; <i, maxilla ; e, maxil- times,

lary palpus ; /, labiuni ; gr, labial
palpus ; //, hypopharynx. En-
larged about uve times.

the direction of motion in the act of chewing. Remove
one of the mandibles, and carefully draw it.

Maxillae. (Fig. 195, rf.) After removing the mandi-
bles there appears another pair of jaws, the under jaws or
maxilla?. These are more complicated organs, and need
to be removed with some care. If the head has not been
removed from the body before this time, remove it now
and pin it with the back or caudal aspect uppermost to
a piece of soft wood or cork. Lift off the freely movable
flap, the labinm, of which we will speak later. (Fig.

FORM" -VXD FUNCTION

259

107.) The labium removed, carefully pry apart the two
maxillae, endeavoring to obtain the full basal portion.
With the aid of a small hand-lens, the following parts
may be made out :

Lacinia. A curved and toothed part, somewhat like
the mandibles. (Fig. 169, Le.)

Galea. Lying laterad or outside of the lacinia is the
spoon-shaped galea. The galea is composed of two seg-
ments. (Fig. 196, gl.Y

Palpus. Arising from the basis of the galea is the
long five-jointed palpus, or feeler. (Fig. 196, p.}

Make a drawing of the rear or caudal view of the
maxilla 1 , naming all the parts.

Labium. With the aid of a hand-lens, the labium may
be analyzed into the following-
parts :

The two movable flaps, ligula.
(Fig. 197, L.)

The central portion, known as
the mentum. (Fig. 197, If.)

Arising from the basal por-
tion of the mentum are the
labial palpi. (Fig. 197, Lp.)

Articulating with the base

FIG. 197. Labium. g, gula ;
S, submentum ; M, mentum ;
Pg, palpiger ; Lp, labial palpus.
L, ligula, consists of the two
flaps below mentum. Enlarged
seven and one-half times.

of the mentum is the cres-
cent-shaped submentum. (Fig.
197, S.)

The gula and the palpiger are
inconspicuous parts, which will not readily be made out
without the aid of a compound lens.

1 The basal portion of the maxilla is composed of a rectangular sclerite called
the stipes, connected at the distal end with the lacinia, and at the proximal end with
the small, two- jointed cardo. The larger joint of the cardo is somewhat triangular.

260

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

Make a drawing of the labimn, and name the parts
apparent with the lens in use.

Hypopharynx. - The hypopharynx, marked in Fig.
209 H, situated between the maxilla and arising from
the back wall of the mouth, may be readily made out.

THORAX.

The thorax consists of three divisions : the prothorax,
bearing the front pair of legs ; the mesothorax, bearing
the front wings and the middle pair of legs ; the meta-
thorax, bearing the hind wings and the last pair of legs.

Prothorax.

The prothorax is made most conspicuous by the pro-

notum, the large sunboimet-
shaped piece covering the
dorsal portion of the thorax
and extending back over the
mesothorax and enveloping
the lateral portions of the
prothorax. This pronotum is
divided into four parts, be-
ginning with the cephalic or

FIG. 198. side view of prothorax front part. They are named

(Fig. 198): a, pnrscutum ;
&, scutum ; c, scutellum ; d,
post scutellum.

Just beneath, or ventrad of
the scutellum, is a small tri-
angular piece called the epi-
sternum of the prothorax. The under and ventral por-
tion of an insect is spoken of as the sternum; the side

with leg. a, prsescutum ; b, scutum ;
c, scutellum; d, post scutellum; e,
episternuru ; m, membrane, con-
necting head with prothorax, con-
taining the jugular sclerites ; /,
coxa of leg ; 0, trochanter ; ft, fe-
mur ; i, tibia ; j, tarsi ; fc, pulvillus
and two claws. Enlarged three
times.

FORM AND FUNCTION

261

or lateral portion is the pleiirmn ; and the upper or
dorsal portion is the notnm.

Do the sutures dividing these sclerites extend down
to the ventral margins of the pronotum? Make a
drawing of the lateral view of the prothorax.

Prothoracic Leg 1 . For study it will be better to remove
the leg from the body.

Coxa. Xote the globular joint. This is the coxa.
(Fig. 198, f.)

Trochanter. This second segment is a short, much
smaller segment than the coxa, and more readily seen
from the inner side. (Fig. 11 IS, r/.)

Femur. The next segment of the leg is the femur.
This is the largest and most prominent portion of the
leg. (Fig. 108, ft.)

Tibia. Continuing outward, the next segment is the
tibia, a segment more slender than the femur. How
does the inner margin differ from the inner margin of
the femur? (Fig. 198, /.)

The rest of the leg is composed of a number of freely
movable segments, known collectively as the tarsi. In
the grasshopper there are three of these movable joints,
the outer or end one bearing a pair of claws and a horse-
hoof-shapcd pulvillus between the claws.

Make a drawing of the thoracic leg.

Mesothorax.

In order to study the mesothorax, remove the pro-
thorax. We will study first the lateral view, then the
ventral view, and lastly the dorsal view.

Episternum. Extending from the front half of the
mesothoracic coxa, dorsad to the base of the first pair of

262

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

A.

B.

FIG. 199. Side view of thorax,
larged three times.
A, Mesothorax.
a, parapteron.
6, episternum.

c, epimeron.

d, wing.

En-

B, Metathorax
6', episternum.
c', epimeron.
d', wing.

wings, is the episternum of the mesothorax. ISTote that
this part-way surrounds the socket of the leg, and articu-
lates with the lateral margin of the sternum beneath.

Students at this time will
carefully distinguish the
difference between color
markings and sutures
proper. (Fig. 199, Z>.)

Parapteron. Just cepha-
lad or in front of the meso-
thoracic wing is a very
small triangular sclerite,
the parapteron. This
sclerite is inconspicuous,
and not readily discerned.
Epimeron. Extending from the base of the front
wing to the socket of the mid-
dle leg lies the epimeron of
the mesothorax. (Fig. 199, c.)
Make a drawing of the lat-
eral aspect of the mesothorax.
Ventral View. Between the
nicsothoracic legs, forming
the ventral surface of the
mesothorax, is a prominent
quadrangular sclerite, nearly
straight on the front margin,
but on the median line of
caudal margin there is a
well-developed dovetailed structure, making a
notch in this segment. (Fig. 200.)

FIG. 200. Ventral view of thorax.
Pro. St., prosternum ; Mesa. St.,
mesosternum ; Mtta. St., metaster-
num. Enlarged about three times.

broad

FORM AND FUNCTION

263

Make a drawing of the ventral aspect of the meso-
thorax.

Dorsal View. -Lying- between the mesothoracic wings
is a quadrangular piece, with a raised shield-shaped
center. This is the mesonotnni. (Fig. 202, (7.) Typ-
ically speaking, the notum of each division of the thorax
should be composed of four sclerites, bearing the same
names as those already given the pronotnm. In this
case we cannot locate them, since the sutures are not
clearly marked. The first segment, the prsescutum, is
a very narrow plate, a mere line, not easily made out.

Metathorax.

Dorsal View. The shape and divisions of the meta-
thorax are similar to those of the mesothorax. As in
the mesothorax, the sutures cannot be satisfactorily
defined.

Lateral View. - The lateral aspect of the metathorax
shows it to be composed of two sclerites, the episternum
and the epimeron.

Episternum. - This sclerite extends from the front
half of the hind coxa to the base of the hind wing.
(Fig. 109, b.)

Epimeron. Immediately joining the caudal margins
of the episternum is the epimeron, which likewise ex-
tends from the leg socket to the base of the wing. Add
a drawing of this lateral view of the metathorax to the
lateral view of the mesothorax already drawn.

Ventral View. On the ventral part of the metathorax
there is but one sclerite, the metasternum.

The Metasternum. Lying immediately caudad of the
mesosternum there is a large sclerite, the central part

264

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

of which dovetails into the mesosternnm. This is the
metasternum. (Fig. 200.) Note that the first abdom-
inal segment is likewise dovetailed into the posterior
margin of this segment.

FIG. 201. Metathoracic, or jumping leg. c, coxa ; <r, trochanter ; /, femur ; ti, tibia ;
ta, tarsi ; p, pulvillus and two claws. Enlarged four times.

Metathoracic Leg - - The metathoracic leg, though
somewhat different in appearance from the prothoracic
leg, already studied, is composed of a like number of
parts and bearing the same relative positions and names
as given in the study of the prothoracic leg. Draw the
metathoracic leg, and name the parts. (Fig. 201.)

The Wings.

The two pairs of wings on each side are membranous
expansions of the body-wall. They are composed of
membrane strengthened by many thickened portions ex-
tending the length of the wings. These thickenings are

FORM AND FUNCTION

265

B.

called veins or nerves. In
the grasshopper the struc-
ture and shape of the two wings on one side
differ very materially. (Fig. 202, w w.)

Mesothoracic Wing. This is frequently
called the tegmen. It is long and narrow,
and heavier than the metathoracic wing.
(Fig. 202.)

Metathoracic Wing. - - The metathoracic

FIG. 202. Dorsal aspect of body (female). A, head : i, antenna ;
2, epicranium ; 3, compound eye. B, prothorax : a, pnescutum;
6, scutum ;.c, scutellum ; d, post scutellum. C, mesonotum: se,
scutum; scl, scutellum; to, tegmen, or wing-cover. D, mi-tano-
turu : ac, scutum ; scl, scutellum ; ic, wing. E, abdomen : ;, L', 3, 4,
5, S, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, segments ; aw7, auditory organ ; sp, spiracles ; ,,
cerci ; pp, podical plates ; o, ovipositor. Enlarged about three and
one-half times.

wings are Lroad and fan-like, capable <>t he-
ing folded in plaits, and are concealed along
the sides under the tegniina when not in use.
Since these arc relied upon for the principal

266

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIKE

means of flight, they are commonly called the wings.

(Fig. 202.)

THE ABDOMEN.

Among writers upon this subject there exists a differ-
ence of opinion concerning the number of segments com-
posing the abdomen. It will be evident to the observer
here, upon a careful examination, that there are eight
segments on the dorsal aspect of the abdomen of the
female, and nine clearly shown on the same portion of
the male. As will be seen from Fig. 202, we have con-
sidered the .segments caudad of segment eight in the
female, and segment nine in the male, as parts of the
dorsal portion, and have numbered them accordingly.

The First Segment- - The ventral portion of this seg-
ment is dovetailed into the metasternum, and by some
authors has been considered a part of the metasternum.
The ventral portion is widely separated from the lateral
portion of the same segment, by the insertion of the
hind leg.

The Auditory Organs. - - Just

dorsad of the leg in this seg-
ment is to be found on each
side an oystershell-shaped open-
ing, covered by a membrane.
These are the organs of hearing,
or auditory organs, and the mem-
brane covering them is the tym-
panum.

Second to Eighth Segments
The second to the eighth seg-

FIG. -203. Exterior view of
auditory organ. Sp, spiracle.
Clear space is tympanum.
Small dark body in center is
vesicle, which is connected by
vein to ganglion shown at
right. Enlarged fifteen times.

ments are each ring -like in
form.

FoKAl A.\D

267

The connection between the ventral portion of each of
these segments with the lateral portion is not a suture,
but is made by a membrane. This membrane can be
most readily seen in the living insect during respiration.
The lateral and dorsal portions of these eight segments
show no dividing suture.

Caudal Portion of Abdomen of Male. - The ninth and
tenth dorsal segments are united on their lateral mar-
gins ; the eleventh segment is flattened and furrowed
by three deep longitudinal grooves.

FIG. 204. Side view of
male. 7, K, 9, 10, 11, seg-
ments ; c, cerci. Enlarged
about three times.

FIG. 205. Dorsal view of
caudal appendages of male.
6, 7, H, 9, 10, 11, segments ;
c, cerci. Enlarged about
three times.

On each side, projecting candad from beneath the
lateral margins of the tenth tergum and curved upward,
are the two appendages called the cerci. In this species
they are slightly forked.

Immediately beneath or within these cerci can be seen

.

two narrow plates, more readily distinguished at their
caudal extremity. These are the podical plalcx.

This last of the ventral segments consists of a h 1-

shaped piece, rounding up over the caudal end of the
body into a blunt point.

Make a drawing of the dorsal and lateral views of
the abdomen of the male, naming the parts.

268

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

Caudal Portion of the Abdomen of the Female.- - The

eleventh segment is somewhat rounded, and is crossed
by a transverse ridge.

The Cerci are situated similarly as in the male, and
are much shorter and not forked.

The Podical Plates have the same position relative
to the cerci as in the male, and are more prominent,
curving up under the eleventh dorsal segment.

Ovipositor. - The most prominent portion of the
caudal extremity of the female is the ovipositor.
This consists of four horny-tipped pieces, outward
curved at the extremities. For their use and the man-
ner of using, see Figures 11, 206, and page 9.

Egg Guide. - The caudal margin of the last ventral
segment extends dorsad between the two lower pieces
of the ovipositor. This forms the egg guide.

FIG. 206. Side view of abdomen (female). 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, seg-
ments ; Sp, spiracles ; aud, auditory organ ; o, ovipositor ; pp, podical plates ;
c, cerci ; /, forked organ. Enlarged about three times.

JMake drawing of the lateral and dorsal views of the
abdomen of the female.

Spiracles. Just cephalad of the socket of the meso-
thoracic leg and a little above, is a small slit-like
organ. Watch this in the living insect and you will
notice two small valves or lips opening and closing.

FORM AND FUNCTION

269

% I

)'
/

FIG. 207. Side view, showing spir-
acle of mesothorax with spiracle en-
larged.

This is one of the openings
of the respiratory system.

It is called a spiracle. Ex-

;ii i line the body of the liv-

ing grasshopper and locate,
if you can, other spiracles.

INTERNAL DIVISIONS OF THE BODY.

The grasshopper, agreeing with higher forms of life,
has a digestive, circulatory, reproductive, respiratory,
excretory and nervous system. With the facilities at
hand we shall not be able to study all of these thor-
oughly. However, by means of the dissecting-stand,
lens, and with the addition of a pair of needles, we can
obtain some interesting facts.

DIGESTIVE TRACT.

Take a freshly killed specimen, clip off the wings,
pin the body down by the legs to a sheet of cork or thin
piece of some soft wood, and with a sharp-pointed pair

270

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

FIG. 208. Digestive system of bae, magnified ten times (after Cheshire). A,
horizontal section of body ; 7p, labial palpus ; mx, maxilla ; e, eye ; dv, di\ dorsal
vessel ; v, ventricles of the same ; No. 1, No. 2, No. 3, salivary gland systems, 1, 2,3;
us, oesophagus ; pro. t, prothorax ; mesa, t, mesothorax ; meta. t, metathorax ; #, 0,
ganglia of chief nerve chain ; n, nerves ; hs, honey sac ; p, petaloid stopper of
honey sac or stomach mouth ; c. a, chyle stomach ; 6t, biliary or malplghlan ves-
sels ; si, small Intestine ; ?, lamellae or gland plates of colon ; H, large Intestine.

KOR.M AND FUNCTION

271

of small scissors open the specimen on the median line
of the back, the full length of the body. Be careful
not to cnt deeper than the body-wall, lest the internal
organs be disturbed ; pin down the sides of the body
to the cork. The specimen is now ready for study
npon the dissecting-stand.

The specimen can be more readily manipulated if
the block or cork of wood holding it be placed in a
vessel containing just enough water to cover the speci-
men. The internal organs will float out and stand
up more distinctly.

FIG. 209. Digestive, circulatory and nervous systems of female grasshopper. 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 6,
7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, segments; a-a, digestive tract; H, hypopharynx ; Lb, labium; Lm, labrurn ;
Lp, labial palpus ; mp, maxillary palpus ; (J?, tesophagus ; pp, ovipositors ; eg, egg guide ; co,
colon ; r, rectum. The heart is an open tube running along the back; it is so marked, but not
easily shown. Enlarged three times.

The digestive system begins with the masticatory
organs of the mouth, previously shown. (Figs. 193,
195.) The food is here masticated and mingled with
the saliva secreted by glands lying under the esopha-
gus. From the esophagus it passes into the crop,
where it is retained until mixed with the saliva. The
food then enters the gizzard-like proventriculus ; the
inner walls of this are lined with chitinized processes,
which, by a series of contractions, grind up the food

272

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

and pass it into tlic stomach proper. Lying alongside
this stomach, and connected with it, can be seen on
each side three long tubes. These are glands (pouches
or ceca), and secrete a fluid which enters the stomach.
It passes forward into the crop, and acts upon the
food there also. From the proximity to the stomach,
these pouches are frequently called gastric ceca. Pla-
t <';i u and other writers equally authentic, claim that
the digestive properties of the fluid secreted in them
agree with the pancreatic juice of vertebrates.

The food, after leaving the stomach, passes into the
intestines, the upper part of which is called the ilenm,
the middle part the colon, the terminal part the rectum.
At the forward end of the ileum can be seen a large
number of tubes (malpighian tubes) running backward.
These are believed to perform the functions similar t<>
that performed by the kidneys in the higher animals.
While the food is in the stomach, and as it passes
through the ileum and the colon, the nutritive portions
oozing through the walls of this digestive tube enter the
circulation. The waste material is carried off through
the rectum.

Make a drawing of the dorsal view of the alimentary
canal, and name the parts.

NERVOUS SYSTEM.

Cut the caudal extremity of the alimentary canal ;
pin this far enough to the side to allow free view of
the whole tract immediately beneath. Here can be seen
the nervous system. It consists of a series of ganglia,
or masses of nervous matter, situated under the di-
gestive canal. These ganglia are arranged along the
body just next to the digestive tract. They are placed

FORM AND FUNCTION

273

together, in pairs, three pairs in the thorax and five
pairs in the abdomen. They are joined to each other
and to the ones of the corresponding side by a cord of
nerve tissue known as a commissure. This forms a
double chain from the back part of the body up to the
head, where a nerve band is formed around the esopha-
gus; on the top of the esophagus are to be found the
two largest ganglia in the body of the insect. From
these ganglia, nerves proceed to various parts of the
head. From these there go out brunches of nerves fo
the eyes, to the antennae, to the maxilla- and mandibles,
and to other parts of the face.

Make a drawing showing the nervous system and
the position of the ganglia with reference to their
respective segments on the -body.

FIG. 210. Respiratory system. Sp, spiracles, showing trachea) permeating all parts of the body ;
S, air-sacs, which aid flight. Enlarged three times.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM.

This insect, instead of having one portion of the
body set apart for the purification of the blood, similar
to animals possessing lungs, may be said to have lungs
all over its system; that is, there are trachea 1 branched
and branched until thev cover everv part of the system

. JL t

18

274 ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

and extend to every organ in the system. These
trachea do not depend upon the month for their supply
of air, but are connected with the body-wall direct, the
outer portion of this connection being known as spira-
cles. (Figs. 206, 210.) These spiracles have valves and
openings which close and open at intervals, allowing
free interchange of air. The trachea? which run from
these spiracles are membranous tubes, which do not
collapse, because they are kept open by continuous
rings of cartilage, similar, though on a smaller scale,
to the cartilage in the windpipe of those animals pos-
sessing lungs. This distribution of air within the
body tends to make the insect lighter and more cupahlr
of flight. In addition to these trachea, however, there
are organs especially made to assist in buoying the in-
sect when on the wing. These are commonly known as
air-sacs, and connect with the spiracles as .shown in
the figure. (Fig. 210.)

In a live insect, notice under the lens the action of
the spiracle situated just in front and dorsad of the
base of the mesothoracic leg. If the student will for
a time watch this spiracle it will be seen to have two
lips, and that these open and close in unison with the
expansion and contraction of the body-wall. This
movement of the body is more manifest in the abdo-
men. Figure 207 shows this spiracle much enlarged.

Take out one or two of the largest trachea? found,
and study their structure by tearing them apart on
the dissecting-table under the lens. When the trachea
are pulled apart with the needles, do they sometimes
appear still to be connected by a thread which ravels

FORM AND FUNCTION

275

off from each fragment like thread from a spool ? This
thread is the coiled structure which prevents the
trachea 1 at all times from collapsing.

Keturn to your outline-drawings of the external an-
atomy, and locate the mesothoracic abdominal spiracle.

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM.

In this locust, there are no arteries and no veins.
The circulatory system, so far as organs are concerned,
is comprised of what we are wont to call the heart.
This organ is a tube extending from about the tenth
segment of the abdomen up into the head. This tube
has valves along its sides which admit of entrance of
blood, and do not allow that which has entered to escape
until it passes out of the main opening at the end of
this organ in the head.

The blood of insects differs from that of some other
animals, in having no red corpuscles. It is a thin
fluid, and is a mixture of blood and chyle, usually
colorless, but sometimes yellowish or reddish. It is
carried forward by this tube or heart to the front
end, and then flows back, nourishing the organs as it-
passes, and likewise coming in contact with tracheae,
which are everywhere present in the body. When in
contact with these trachea, action similar to that in
the human lung takes place. It will be seen that the
chief function of this heart is to conduct forward the
newly made blood and unused blood from the back end
of the body, pour it out at the front end of the body,
and allow it to flow back like a river in its course.
The action of the heart can be seen with the naked eye,
or still better, through the haiul-leiis, in some cater-

276

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

pillars with light color and delicate skin, when they are
held between the observer and the snn.

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM.

Should a female be examined a few clays previous
to the time of oviposition, the ovary will be found
much distended and containing about one hundred eggs.
These eggs are carried out through the egg-duct and

FIG. 211. Reproductive system of female grasshopper. Large egg-sac lying above stomach ; ovi-
(kict leading out above egg-guide (the external opening of oviduct is above point where duct is cut by
this sectional figure) ; r, rectum ; a-a, digestive tract. Enlarged three times.

placed in position in the ground in the manner previ-
ously shown. If eggs are present in the specimen now
studied, make a drawing of the lateral view of the
whole ovary and of one of the eggs.

THE BEETLE.

That some conception may be obtained of the dif-
ferences and resemblances existing between the relative
parts in different insects, the anatomy of the rummag-
ing ground-beetle 1 is outlined.

This is not an uncommon insect, and can be found
in the woods around decaying logs, or under rocks. It

} Calosoma scrutator. Any of the larger beetles belonging to the Carabidae, the
ground-beetle family, will do.

FORM AND FUNCTION

277

is about an inch long and a half-inch broad. The legs,
top of head, and prothorax are purple, the wing-covers
dark green with wine-red borders.

The beetle, after being treated with cyanide, as in
the case of the grasshopper, should be boiled in water

FIG. 212. Rummaging ground-beetle (Calosoma scrutator). Enlarged.

until the parts separate easily. The different parts
can be readily separated under the lens upon the dis-
secting-stand.

Upon a piece of white cardboard, eight by fourteen
inches, fasten neatly, with a good quality of glue, the
several parts in order, following the method shown in
Figure 213.

Name the movable parts of the head.

278 ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

FORM AND FUNCTION

279

Name tlio divisions of the body.

Name the appendages of the body.

Name the segments of the legs on one side of the body.

It will be found more convenient to number the
divisions and segments, then write the numbers and
corresponding names in a column on the right-hand
side of the card-mount.

Boil another specimen of the same beetle ; separate
the parts. With a specimen of the yellow grasshopper
in hand and the drawings previously made thereon,
make careful observations on the comparative size,
shape and relative positions of the following parts of
the two insects, and place them in writing:

The head.

The prothorax.

The mesothorax.

The metathorax.

The abdomen.

The mandibles.

The maxilla?.

The eyes.

The prothoracic leg.

The mesothoracic leg.

The metathoracic leg.

The wing-covers (elytra).

The wings proper.

MOUTH-PARTS OF THE CICADA.

Since the mouth-parts of all insects are of two
types, mandibulate and haustellate, it is proper that the
student should be familiar with the structure of each.
The mouth-parts of the grasshopper and the beetle are

280 ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

examples of the mandibulate type. The mouth-parts of
the cicada, sometimes called harvest-fly or locust, illus-
trate the structure of the haustellate mouth. Specimens
just from the cyanide bottle or preserving-fluid can
be studied without further preparation. Dried speci-
mens will require boiling in water until soft and plia-
ble. Remove the head with the beak from the body
of the specimen ; examine the beak before dissecting.

The primitive or earlier insects had biting mouth-
parts ; the haustellate or sucking mouth is a later de-
velopment. This mouth structure is therefore a special-
ized form. That is, it has been peculiarly developed
for a certain purpose, from, we are led to believe, the
primitive mandibulate mouth. So, in discussing these
sucking mouth-parts, it is the endeavor to trace each
back to its primitive organ. The terms used, then,
in naming the organs of the sucking mouth, are as far
as possible the same as those used in naming the parts
of the biting mouth. These terms, such as mandible
and maxilla, are not used to name the parts of the
sucking mouth to signify that they are used for chew-
ing. The parts are so designated because it is gen-
erally believed that the parts so named were once a
true mandible or a true maxilla. But certain condi-
tions arose which made it necessary for these insects to
secure their nourishment from the juices under the
bark of trees, instead of chewing the foliage. These
biting mouth-parts gradually developed by long use into
tube-like structures adapted to the required work.

The names given these are given, therefore, because
it is generally believed that the sucking mouth-parts, so
named, represent the present development or condition

FORM AND FUNCTION

281

of the corresponding part, the one bearing the same
name in the biting mouth. That is, we say the parts
are homologous.

What are the conditions which might arise to cause
this peculiar and interesting development ? Let us sup-
pose that, leaf- and vegetable-feeding insects became so
numerous as to devour
or greatly reduce the
whole food supply. Is it
not evident that many
insects would perish \
But, if some of these
insects find it possible
to secure nourishment
from beneath the bark of
trees and dense outer
covering of plants, the
leaves of which have al-
ready been eaten, will
they not have a better
chance to exist than

FIG. 214. Head of cicada, showing rnouth-

tllOSe wllOSe dependence parts. Tip of mandible and maxilla en-
is wholly upon the foli- larged ' at the left
age? Insects which have learned to extract the juices,
finding this an easy and uncontested way of obtain-
ing sustenance, continue to seek nourishment in such
places. Succeeding generations having used the mouth
constantly in this way, this mouth has developed and
adapted itself to the work in hand, until at present there
exists a well-established mechanism for the imbibing
of fluids.

282 ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

With these points clearly in mind, take up the study
of the cicada. Pin the head on a piece of cork, with the
front of the head upward. With the dissecting-needle
carefully draw out the mouth-parts contained in the
long tube, the three-jointed labium. Trace these needle-
like parts as near to the head as possible. How many
of these needle-like parts are there? (See Fig. 214.)
Each of these needles passes within the head. The larger
ones are the mandibles, the smaller ones are the max-
illa^. If a compound microscope is at hand, make an
examination of the tips of a mandible and of a maxilla.
These mandibles and maxillae are used, not for biting,
but for boring or cutting through the outer layers of
trees and plants. It is likely that they also aid in
bringing the juices into the esophagus.

KEY TO THE OKDEES

283

CHAPTER VI.

KEY TO THE ORDERS AND THE PRINCIPAL FAMILIES

OF INSECTS

Definition Hexapoda. - Insects belong ,to the class
Insacta or Hexapoda. They are small animals with
bodies divided into three parts, head, thorax, and
abdomen. These are placed in longitudinal succession.
They breathe, take air, by means of trachea ramifying
throughout the body. The main trunks of the trachea

O /

open externally at orifices (spiracles) situated at the
sides of the body. As appendages they have one pair
of antenna?, situated on the head, six legs attached to
the thorax, the middle division of the body, four wings
in some cases, in others two, always placed on t he-
thorax. In some instances insects have no wings. The
insect body is composed of a succession of transverse
rings or segments, marked in some, obscure in others.
It is generally conceded that the number of these
rings never exceeds thirteen. This ringed or segmented
condition is more marked in the earlier stages of in-
sect life. The number of articulated legs is six. In
the developing stages these may be present or absent.

ORDERS.

A. Insects, wingless and without rudimentary wings, showing
no evidence of having descended from winged ancestors. Three
pairs of legs. Metamorphosis slight. APTERA.

AA. Insects, winged, or having rudiments of wings, showing
evidence of having descended from winged ancestors. Meta-
morphosis varied.

284 ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

B. Mouth-parts biting, four wings.

C. Front wings leather-like, usually narrower than hind
wings, which are delicate, and fold in repose in the man-
ner of a fan. Metamorphosis incomplete.

ORTHOPTERA.

CC. Front and hind wings similar in texture, frequently
with many cross-veins forming a network. Little or no
fan-like action in the closing of hind wings. Metamor-
phosis incomplete in some forms, complete in others.

NEUROPTERA.

CCC. Wing-covers, i.e., .the upper pair, shell-like, meeting

in a straight line along the back, forming cases over and

concealing the delicate infolded membranous wings proper.

Metamorphosis complete. COLEOPTERA.

CCCC. The four wings membranous. Front wings larger

than hind wings; hind wings always small, and not folding

fan-like in repose. Mouth-parts mandibulate, but in many

forms there is present a tubular proboscis; the mandibles

being in the form of jaws and the maxillae and labium

fitted for taking liquid food. HYMENOPTERA.

BB. Mouth suctorial. Four wings.

C. Mouth perfectly suctorial.

D. The front pair wings leather-like, with more mem-
branous apex (Heteroptera see page 184), or entire
wing parchment-like or membranous ( Homoptera see
page 185.) Metamorphosis incomplete.

HEMIPTERA.

DD. Four large wings covered with scales. Metamor-
phosis complete. LEPIDOPTERA.
CC. Mouth imperfectly suctorial. Four very narrow
fringed wings. Very small insects. Metamorphosis incom-
plete. THYSANOPTERA.
BBB. Mouth suctorial, mandibulate and maxillate bristles
present in some forms, and used for piercing. Two wings,
the hind wings being represented by a pair of knobbed,
thread-like organs. Metamorphosis complete.

DIPTERA.

APTERA.

A. Abdomen composed of ten segments; ventral tube wanting

on its first segment. Suborder Thysanura.

(Fish Moths.)

KEY TO THE ORDERS

285

AA. Abdomen composed of not more than six segments, the first

being furnished with a ventral tube. Suborder Gollnnbohi.

(Spriugtails.)

ORTHOPTERA.

A. Posterior femora fitted for walking, i. e., resembling those of
the other legs. Organs of flight of immature forms in normal
position. Insects mute.

B. Anterior wings leathery, very short, without veins, meet-
ing in a straight line; posterior wings when present folded
to the middle of the anterior margin; tarsi three-jointed, the
pulvillus wanting; cerci horny, resembling forceps.

Forficulidae.

(Earwigs.)

BB. Anterior wings parchment-like, thickly veined ; posterior
wings folded to the base, (except certain Phasnudac, which
are wingless); tarsi five-jointed; cerci soft, jointed or with-
out joints.

C. Body oval, depressed; head wholly or almost wholly
withdrawn beneath the pronotum ; pronotum shield-like,
transverse; legs compressed; cerci jointed; rapid-
running insects. Blattidar.

(Cockroaches.)

CC. Body elongated; head free; pronotum elongated;
legs slender, rounded; cerci jointed or without joints;
walking insects.

D. Front legs fitted for grasping; cerci jointed.

Mantidae.
(Praying Mantis.)

DD. Front legs simple; cerci without joints.

Phasmidac.
(Walking-Sticks.)

AA. Posterior femora fitted for jumping, i. r., very much stouter
or very much longer, or both stouter and longer, than the middle
femora; organs of flight of immature forms reversed; stridulat-
ing insects.

B. Antenna 3 shorter than body; tarsi three- jointed ; organs of
hearing situated in the first abdominal segment; stridulat-
ing organs situated in hind femora and the costal area of

the tegmina. Acrididac.

( Grasshoppers.)

BB. Antenna 1 longer than body, setaceous; tarsi four- or

286 ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

three-jointed; organs of hearing situated in the anterior
tibae and also in the prosternum.

C. Tarsi four-jointed; ovipositor (when exserted) form-
ing a strongly compressed, generally sword-shaped blade.

Locustidfte.
( Katydids.)

CC. Tarsi three-jointed; ovipositor (when exserted) form-
ing a nearly cylindrical, straight, or occasionally up-
curved needle. Gri/lliddc.

(Crickets.)
NEUROPTERA.

A. With four or two wings well developed.

B. Antennae inconspicuous, awl-shaped, short and slender.
C. First and second pairs of wings nearly of same length ;

tarsi three- jointed. Libclliiliduc.

(Dragon-Flies.)

CC. Second pair of wings either smaller or wanting; tarsi
four- or five-jointed. Ephcmcridm:

(Day-Flies.)

BB. Antennae usually conspicuous, setiform, filiform, clavate,
capitate, or pectinate.
C. Tarsi two- or three-jointed ; wings unequal.

D. Hind wings smaller. Psocidae.

(Book-Lice.)

DD. Hind wings of same size, or broader than fore wings;
anal area large, of simple venation, folded.

Perlidae.

(Stone-Flies.)
CC. Tarsi four-jointed; wings unequal. TcnnHidnc.

( White Ants.)

CCC. Tarsi five- (sometimes apparently but four-) jointed.
D. Hind wings with no anal space, not folded.
E. Mouth more or less prolonged into a beak.

1'i/iwrjiidae.
(Scorpion-Flies.)
EE. Mouth not prolonged into a beak.

Hcmerobidae.
(Lacewing-Flies.)
DD. Hind wings with a folded anal space.

E. Wings reticulate. Sialidae.

(Dobson-Flies.)

EE. Transverse veins rather few. Phryganeidae.

(Caddis-Flies.)

KEY TO THE OKDKl.'S

287

AA. Wings rudimentary or wanting.
B. Mouth prolonged into a beak.

BB. Mouth not prolonged iuto a beak.
C. Tarsi five-jointed.

Panorpidae.

(Certain Scorpion-Flics.)

CC. Tarsi four-jointed.

Phri/gancidar.
(Certain Caddis-Flies.)

Tcrmitiditc.
(Certain White Ants.)
CCC. Tarsi two- or three-jointed.

D. Wings absent; or two rudimentary, leathery.

Psocidae.
(Certain Book-Lice.)

DD. Four rudimentary wings, veins visible.

Perlidae.

(Certain Stone-Flies.)

CCCC. Tarsi one- or two- jointed. Mallophagidae.

(Bird-Lice.)

COLEOPTERA.

A. Head not prolonged into a narrow beak,
B. Tarsi five-jointed.

c. d.

FIG 215. Various forms of antennfe of beetles, a, filiform, or thread-like ; 7>,
serrate, or saw-like ; e, pectinate, or comb-like ; d, lamellate, having an enlarged
end, composed of plates.

C. Antenna? with terminal joints leaf-like (lamellifonn ;
i.e., broader and flatter than basal segments.) (Lamelli-
cornia.)

D. The ventral surface of abdomen divided into five seg-
ments; elytra cover entire dorsal surface of abdomen;

288

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

mandibles in males large, and armed with projections

or teeth. Lucaniilm.

(Stag Beetles.)

DD. The ventral surface of abdomen divided into six
segments; elytra do not usually cover entire dorsal sur-
face of abdomen. flcarabacidae.

(Chafers ; June-Bugs.)

CC. Antenna? never lamelliform, but thread-like or nearly so.
(Adephaga.)
D. Legs fitted for running. Terrestrial insects.

E. Clypeus extending laterally in front of base of
antennae; i.e., antennae inserted in front above base

of mandibles. Cicindclidae.

( Tiger Beetles.)

EE. Clypeus not extending laterally in front of base
of antennae; i.e., antenna- coming from the side of the

head between base of mandibles and the eyes.

Cardbidae.

(Ground Beetles.)
DD. Legs, especially the hind legs, fitted for swimming;

not capable of ordinary walking. Di/tiNci<lu<:

( Predaceous Diving Beetles.)

BB. Front and middle tarsi five-jointed,
hind tarsi four-jointed. (Heteromera.)
C. Prothorax wider than head ; front
coxa 1 separated, not protruding; body

and wing-covers firm. Tciu-bi-ion'nl<n-.

(Darkling Beetles )

CC. Prothorax narrower than head ;
front coxae near together, protruding;

body and wing-covers soft. Meloidae.

( Blister Beetles.)

BBB. Tarsi four-jointed (apparently), but
with a small indistinct joint between the
third and fourth clearly visible segments.
(Phytophaga.) (See Figure 210.)
C. Body elongate, antennae long, fre-
quently as long as the body or longer;

the larvae are borers. Cerambycidae.

(Long-horned Beetles.)

CC. Body short, more or less oval, an-
tenna? short. Chrysomclidae.

( Leaf Beetles.)

FIG. 216. Tarsi
of beetle, showing
indistinct fourth
segment. (After
Comstock.)

KEY TO THE ORDERS

289

BBBB. Tarsi variable, antennae club-shaped; i.e., the distal
joints enlarged; or antennal joints from third outward inure
or less saw-like, the saw-teeth being on the inner edge.
(Polymorpha. )
C. Tarsi five- jointed.

D. Maxillary palpus as long or longer than the antennre.

Hydrophilidae.

( Water Scavengers.)

DD. Maxillary palpus plainly shorter than the antennae.
E. Abdomen with seven or eight visible ventral seg-
ments. Integument soft. Lami>ijfi<lm i .

(Lightning-Bugs.)

EE. Abdomen with five visible segments ; integument
firm.

F. Anterior coxae globular, and projecting but little
from the coxal cavities.

G. Hind angles of prothorax more or less prolonged
backward. Prothorax fitting loosely to the after-
body, thus admitting free nodding movements.

Illdtcridae.
(Click Beetles.)

GG. Hind angles of prothorax not prolonged back-
ward. Prothorax fitting closely to after-body, per-
mitting no nodding motion. Bii]ircKti/l>i<.

(Metallic Wood-Borers.)

FF. Anterior coxa? conical, i. c., long, oblique, and
projecting prominently from the coxal cavities.
Small or moderate-sized beetles. Dcnm.^l iilne.

(Carpet Beetles ; Buffalo Moths.)

CC. Tarsi apparently three-jointed (the apparent third
joint consisting really of two small segments).

Coccincllidae.
(Ladybirds.)

CCC. Tarsi variable, being three-, four- or five-jointed.
D. Abdomen flexible, with seven or eight segments visible
below ; elytra very short, leaving greater part of abdomen
exposed. Stapluiliniilnr.

(Rove Beetles.)

DD. Abdomen firm; elytra usually covering the body;
(the elytra of some Silphidse are short, exposing at most
the last three dorsal segments of abdomen.)
E. Legs fitted for swimming. C! i/rinidac.

19 (Lucky-Bugs; Whirligig Beetles.)

290 ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

EE. Legs fitted for walking. Silphidae.

(Carrion Beetles.)
AA. Head prolonged in front, forming a beak.

Rhynchophora.

B. Head drawn out into a proboscis. Antennae usually elbowed,
i, e., basal joint longer, and when directed laterally the other

joints may be directed forward. Curculionidae.

(Curculios or Weevils.)

BB. Head not drawn out into a proboscis; i.e., the beak is
very short; antennae short with a broad club; tibia usually

toothed on the outer side. Scolytidac.

( Engravers.)

HYMENOPTERA.

A. With abdomen broad at the base. The thorax and abdomen
having a broad connection instead of being connected by a more
or less thread-like joint. Extremity of female equipped with
saw or boring apparatus, usually more or less concealed; vege-
table feeders. (Phytophaga or Sessiliventres.)
B. Front tibia with two apical spurs; abdomen of female

equipped with a pair of saws. Tenthredinidae.

(Saw-Flies.)

BB. Front tibiae with one apical spur; abdomen of female

furnished with a borer. Siricidae.

( Horn-Flies.)

AA. The abdomen connected with what appears to be the
thorax by a slender joint or petiole; in some long and thread-
like, in others short. (Petioliventres.)

B. Trochanters of two pieces, female with ovipositor. (Para-

sitica. ) ( Parasitic Insects.)

C. Wings without a system of cross-veins forming inclosed

cells ; the main direction of the veins being lengthwise of

the wing. Chalcididae.

(Chalcis-Flies.)

CC. Wings with well-developed series of veins and cross-veins.

Ichncumonidae.
( Ichneumon-Flies.)

BB. Trochanters undivided, abdomen consisting of three, four
or five visible segments. Insects of bright metallic colors ;
abdomen convex above, flat or concave below. (Tubulifera. )

Chrysididae.
(Ouckoo-Flies.

KEY TO THE ORDERS

291

BBB. Trochanters undivided : abdomen composed of six or
seven visible segments; female with retractile sting.
(Aculeata.)

C. Body with hairs on it more or less plumose. Apidae.

(Bees.)
CC. Hairs of body not plumose.

D.- First abdominal segment (and sometimes second also)
forming a knot or node on upper side. Formicidae.

(Ants.)

DD. First and second abdominal segments without knot
or node.
E. Wings folded in plaits when at rest.

F. Tibiae of the middle legs with a single terminal
spur, tarsal claws bearing a tooth. Eumenidae.

(Solitary Wasps.)

FF. Tibiae of the middle legs with two terminal spurs ;
tarsal claws not toothed. Vespidae.

( Social Wasps ; Hornets.)
EE. Wings not folded in plaits when at rest.

F. Pronotum extending back on sides to the tegulse.
(See Fig. 217.)

P t

FIG. 217. Drawn from
specimen, by Miss M. E.
Wise.

FIG. 218. Drawn from speci-
men, by Miss M. E. Wise.

G. Legs of normal length ; many wingless forms.

Scoliidae.
(Underground Stingers.)

GG. Legs very long; no wingless forms.

Pompilidae.
(Runners.)

FF. Pronotum not extending back to the tegulse. No

wingless forms. (Fig. 218.) Sphegidae.

( Thread-waisted Wasps; Mud-daubers.)

292

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

HEMIPTERA.

A. Front of head not touching the coxse ; distal portion of wing
generally thinner than basal part. (Hcteroptera.)

B. Antennae as long as the head at least. Terrestrial Heter-
optera excepting one family, Hydrobatidse.
C. Last segment of tarsi more or less split; claws arising
from side of tarsi.

D. Body usually elongate ; beak four-jointed ; tarsi two-
jointed. Second and third pair of legs unusually long.

Hydrobatidae.
(Water-Striders.)

CO. Last segment of tarsus entire; claws arising from end
of tarsi.
D. Antennae four-jointed.

E. Wing-covers resembling network ; tarsi two-jointed.

Tingitidae.

(Lace-Bugs.)

EE. Wing-covers of various forms or rudimentary, but
not resembling lacework.

F. Beak three-jointed, curved. Front femora some-
what thickened. Reduviidae.

(Assassin-Bugs.)
FF. Beak four-jointed.

G. Ocelli present.

FIG. 219. Wing of Coreidae,
showing venation. (After
Comstock.)

FIG. 220. Wing
venation of Ly-
gieidae. (After
Comstock.

FIG. 221. Wing vena-
tion of Capsidse. (After
Comstock.)

H. Antennae inserted on upper part of head;
venation of wing according to figure.

Coreidae.
(Squash-Bugs.)

HH. Antenna? inserted well down on side of head;
venation of wing according to figure.

Lygaeidae.

(Chinch-Bugs.)

GG. Ocelli wanting; venation of wing according

to figure. Capsidae.

(Leaf-Bugs.)

KEY TO THE ORDERS

293

DD. Antenna- five-jointed (rarely four-jointed) ; two ocelli,
tibia bearing very short spines or none, tarsal claws with

appendages. Pcntatomidac.

(Stink-Bug Family.)

BB. Antennse apparently absent, but really present, situated
on under side of head and closely appressed to head, some-
times placed in pocket in front of each eye. Aquatic Heter-
optera.
C. Hind tarsi without claws.

D. Fore tarsi of usual form, with two claws; head in-
serted in prothorax. Not'tnn-tidac.

( Backswlmmers.)

DD. Fore tarsi flattened with a fringe of hairs on the
edge, and without claws. Head overlapping the prothorax.

Corisidae.

(Water-Boatmen.)
CC. Hind tarsi with two claws.

D. Abdomen with terminal respiratory tube composed of
two grooved thread-like organs. Not retractile. Legs
not flattened for swimming. Yr/m/ur.

(Water Scorpions.)

DD. Abdomen with two terminal strap-like appendages,
retractile, frequently withdrawn from sight. Legs flat-
tened for swimming. Belostomidae.

(Giant Water-Bugs.)

AA. Front of head much bent inward so that it touches the
coxae. Wings of same texture throughout. Suborder Homoptera.
B. -Tarsi usually three-jointed.

C. With three ocelli, usually large insects; males possess

musical organs. Cicadidae.

(Cicadas.)

CC. With two ocelli, males without musical organs.

D. Antennse inserted on sides of cheeks beneath the eyes.

I'nlyoridae.
(Lantern-Flies.)

DD. Antenna? inserted in front of and between the eyes.
E. Prothorax prolonged backward into a hood or pro-
cesses of varied forms. Mfinbrai-idae.

(Tree-Hoppers.)

EE. Prothorax not prolonged backward.
F. Hind tibise armed with many spines.

Jassidae.
(Leaf -Hoppers.)

294 ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

FF. Hind tibiae armed with one or two stout teeth,

with short stout spines at tip. Cercopidae.

( Spittle Insects.)

BB. Tarsi usually two-jointed.

C. Legs long and slender, not fitted for leaping; antennae

three- to seven-jointed. Aphididae.

(Plant-Lice or Green-Flies.)

CC. Hind legs fitted for leaping; antennae nine- or ten-
jointed. Psyllidae.

(Jumping Plant-Lice.)

BBB. Tarsi usually composed of one joint. Minute in-
sects; males with one pair of wings, females wingless and
much degraded, so that most of the external organs and

appendages cannot be distinguished. Coccidae.

( Scale Insects.)

LEPIDOPTERA.

A. Antennae knobbed at tip, or thickened near the tip; never
feather-like or with process projecting from the sides. Hind
wings without frenulum but with the humeral area of hind wing
extended forward under the front wing. (Butterflies.)
B. First pair of legs different from the other pairs; gen-
erally much smaller and not used as legs.
C. Front pair of legs very small, claws wanting.

NymphaUdae.

(Brush-footed Butterflies.)

CC. Front pair of legs but little reduced in size; claws

present. Lycaenidae.

( Blues and Coppers.)

BB. First pair of legs like the other pairs.

C. Front tibiae without pads ; claws toothed.

Pieridae.

( Cabbage Butterflies.)
CC. Front tibiae with a pad.

D. Claws large and simple; i.e., not toothed; antennae

generally straight at tip. Papilionidae.

(Swallowtails.)

DD. Claws short and thick, and toothed at the base;

antennse generally recurved at tip. Hesperidae.

( Skippers.)

Before undertaking the systematic study of AA, the second
group, or moths, an understanding of the wing structures of

KEY TO THE ORDERS

295

these insects is necessary. If the under side of the wing be
moistened with benzine or chloroform, by means of a small
camel's-hair brush, it will be noticed that the membranous
portion of the wing is supported by veins or nervures. The
relative positions of these veins remain fairly constant in the
various families, and thus these veins afford clear and ready
means of comparison. For these veins, various systems of
arrangement and nomenclature are extant. The one used here
was proposed by Redtenbacher, and has been modified and ex-
tended by Comstock. The principal trunks of the veins bear
the Roman numerals I, II, III, etc.; the branches of each of

Ux.j

FIG. 223. Wing of a Hepialid
moth, showing plan of vena-
. tion. (After Comstock.)
FIG. 222. Wings of a Noto-
dontid, showing venation. .F,
frenulum. (After Comstock.)

these veins, where branches exist, are numbered III^ IIL, III 3 ,
etc. The system considers I (the front margin of wing) simple,
II simple, III possessing five branches, IV with three branches,
and V with two branches. Those main veins which come after
V are called anal veins. They are generally simple. This ar-
rangement has reference to the early or primitive plan of the
wing. This condition is shown in Figure 222. This arrangement
is greatly modified in some of the higher types, by the elimination
of branches or even trunks and by the coalescence of veins for
part or for their entire length.

AA. Antennae of various forms, frequently feather-like, rarely
knobbed at tip, but in such cases the hind wing bears a
frenulum.

296

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

B. Hind wings with three anal veins; small moths, palpi
generally well developed; when palpi are not well de-
veloped, antennae are at least as long as the front wings.
Fringe on inner angle of hind wings longer than elsewhere.
C. The second anal vein of the hind wings forked near
the base. Tortricidnc.

( Leaf-Rollers.)

CC. The second anal vein of the hind wings not forked
near the base. Tincidae.

( Leaf-Miners and Clothes-Moths.)

BB. Hind wings with less than three anal veins; moths of

FIG. 224. Wings of a Geoniet-
rid, showing venation. F, fren-
ulum. (After Comstock.)

FIG. 225. Wings of a Noctuld,
showing venation, (After Com-
stock.)

medium or large size, palpi generally small ; antennae mod-
erate in length. Fringe on inner angle of hind wing not
noticeably longer than elsewhere.

C. Vein IV 2 of front wing standing midway between IV,
and IV 3 or nearer IVj than IV 3 .
D. Frenulum present.

E. Antenna? in length spindle-shaped; i.e., thicker in
the middle and tapering toward the tip and base; in
breadth, i. e., in cross-section, shaped like a prism.

ftphingidae.
(Hawk Moths or Humming-Bird Moths.)

KEY TO THE ORDERS

297

EE. Antenna? not spindle-shaped, nor prismatic.

F. Tarsi as short as tibia, hairy; stoutly built
moths. Wing venation according to figure. ( Fig.
222.) Notodontidae.

(Proininents.)
FF. Tarsi long and naked; slightly built moth-.

Wing venation according to figure 224.

G-eometridae.

( Measuring-Worms. )

DD. Frenulum absent ; humeral angle of hind wing
extended forward under front wing; proboscis absent,
legs without spurs. K<itnniii<l<i<:

(Cecropia Moths and others.)

FIG 226. Wings of an Arctiid, showing venation. (After Comstock.)

CC. Vein IV 2 of front wing arising from IV 3 or si a tiding
nearer IV 3 than IV^ ocelli present: antennae bristle or
thread-like; night- flying moths. (See Figure 225 for
venation.)

D. Vein II of hind wing distinct from vein III or united
for but a very short distance near base of wing. (See
Figure 225. ) Generally chill-colored moths.

Noctuidae.

(Owlet Moths.)

DD. Vein II of hind wing united with III for a consid-
erable distance from base. (See Fig. 226.) In many
cases these moths are conspicuously striped or spotted.

Arctiidae.

(Tiger Moths.)

298

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

DIPTERA.

A. Antennae with more than six segments, not ending in a
style or bristle; palpi slender and flexible, four- or five-jointed.
( Orthorrhapha Nemocera. )

B. Dorsum of thorax with a distinct V-shaped suture. (See
Fig. 228.) Legs unusually long. Tipulidae.

(Crane-Flies.

FIG. 227. a, antenna of a Bombyliid ; ft, antenna of a Syrphid ; c, antenna of a
Muscid ; d, antenna of a Tabanid. Drawn from specimens, by Miss M. E. Wise.

BB. Dorsum of thorax without distinct V-shaped suture.
C. Margins of wings and each of the wing veins fringed
with flat scales. Antennae with whorls
of hair or plumes ; plume generally
dense in male and sparse in female.

Culicidae.

( Mosquitoes.)

CC. Margin of wing and each of wing
veins without fringe of flat scales;
antennae thick, straight, shorter than
the thorax. Legs comparatively short

and stout. Bibionidae.

(March-Flies.)

AA. Antennae three jointed, with distal
joint marked with from five to eight rings
or annuli. Bristle when present is us-
ually at end, not on upper side of last
segment. Palpi one- or two-jointed. (Or-
thorrhapha Brachycera. )

B. Antennae three-jointed, the second joint usually short. Third

segment frequently annulated. (See Fig. 227, d.) Tabanidae.

( Horse-Flies.)

BB. Antennas three-jointed, the terminal joint not distinctly

FIG. 228. Thorax of
crane-fly, showing V-
shaped suture. (After
Comstock.)

KEY TO THE OKDERS

299

divided. Body frequently fringed with down or covered with
hairs, giving a bee-like appearance. Bombyliidae.

(Bee-Flies.)

BBB. Antennae three-jointed, with terminal appendage of di-
verse form and structure. Mouth forming a short, project-
ing horny beak; strong feet. Predaceous flies. Asilidae.

(Kobber-Flies.)

AAA. Antennae composed of not more than three joints and
an arista; 1 arista not arising from end of last segment; no
arched frontal suture over the antennae. (See Fig. 227, 6.)
( Cyclorrhapha Aschiza. )
B. Vein-like thickening between veins III and V. (See Fig.

226. ) Syrphidae.

(Hovar-Kieo.)

FIG. 229. Wing venation of a Syrphicl. (After Comstock.)

AAAA. Antenna? consisting of three joints and an arista;
frontal suture over antennae well marked, extending downward
along each side of face. (Cyclorrhapha Schizophora.)
B. Arista on upper side of antennae. For wing venation see

Figure 230. Muscidae.

(House-Fly Family.)

FIG. 230. Wing of a Muscid. (After Comstock.)

The suborders Orthorrhapha and Cyclorrhapha, the main sub-
divisions, chiefly based upon pupal characters, are omitted in
this scheme. Instead of a dichotomous arrangement, the prin-
cipal families of the order are placed under the four divisions
of Brauer.

*A bristle-like appendage.

NOTE.

After the completed manuscript was in our hands, we asked
the author to prepare this appendix. It is not a part of the
general plan of the book, but is placed here, at our request, as a

brief treatise for reference only.

THE PUBLISHERS.

(300)

APPENDIX

INJURIOUS INSECTS, AND MODES OF DEALING WITH

THEM

( For reference. )
FARM PRACTICES. CULTURE

Whenever an insect appears in injurious numbers
it becomes highly essential that a knowledge of its
life history should be acquired. In the life of many
insects there is a stage where methods of culture or
farm practices will destroy the insects and prevent the
possibility of damage from them or from their direct
offspring. As illustrations, in alfalfa-growing regions,
native grasshoppers lay their eggs in the alfalfa-field
late in the fall of the year. These eggs hatch in the
early spring and the young defoliate the alfalfa. They
mature during the summer and lay eggs on the same
ground. These will destroy the next year's alfalfa
yield. If the alfalfa lands are thoroughly harrowed
in the early spring with a disk hamnv, the egg-pods
are turned out of the ground and become a prey to birds
and other insects. The exposure to sun and rain and
the sudden changes in temperature destroy any which
escape the birds and insects. The disking, likewise,
materially increases the alfalfa yield.

The Hessian fly seems to have but one vulnerable
point in its life; that is the time from wheat harvest
until wheat sowing. The females of the earl}' fall
brood seem to be so timed that they lay all their eggs

(301)

302

ELEMENTABY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

before the last of September. Now, if the summer
volunteer wheat is kept under, and wheat, rye and
barley sowing is postponed until after the middle of
September, it is evident that, since the Hessian fly
can live only on these cereals, the young of the fall
brood will not find proper nourishment.

Clean culture is everywhere and at all times to be
commended, since rubbish of any kind and all kinds
offers a refuge for the hibernation of insects, and weeds
furnish nourishment for the growing insects. The fol-
lowing illustrates the point: crab-grass had been al-
lowed to grow undisturbed through the summer in a
young pear orchard. The crab-grass was plowed under
in October. The leaf-eating insects, driven from the
crab-grass, defoliated the young pear trees. These be-
gan to bud again, when a heavy frost occurred, biting
the tender buds and killing many of the trees.

Preventives. Clean, thorough culture. Bands of
cotton are placed around the bases of trees, then cov-
ered with tar or similar harmless adhesive substances.
This is done to prevent the ascent of climbing cut-
worms, canker-worms, or the wingless female parent
of the canker-worm. Ditching, with occasional post-
holes in the ditch, for army-worms and chinch-bugs.
(See page 136.)

Rotation of Crops. Crop rotation is very effective.
The corn-root worm rarely effects serious damage until
land has been planted in corn at least three years suc-
cessively. As before stated, the best means of preven-
tion is thorough and clean culture. When insects be-
come destructive they should be reckoned as a factor
in deciding proper modes of cultivation.

INJTTRlOtJS INSECTS

303

Insecticides. In dealing witli insects directly, we
Lave three classes to combat:

1. Those with biting month-parts, having jaws, and
masticating their food.

2. Those with sucking month-parts, having a beak,
through which fluid nourishment is taken.

3. Insects of either of the above classes., but inac-
cessible, such as insects on roots of trees or in bins
of grain.

For Insects that Chew their Food.

ARSENITES. Since the first class bite off portions
of their food, it is evident that poisonous substances
placed thereon will be taken into the digestive system
with the food.

SPRAYS. -Paris green, an aceto-arsenite of copper,
contains, when pure, about 58% of arsenic. The
amount of arsenic contained is variable. An average
analysis is: arsenic, 47.68%; copper oxide, 27.47%;
sulphuric acid, 7.16%; moisture, 1.35%; insoluble
material, 2.32%. In water, Paris green is practically
insoluble. The spray formula generally used is Paris
green one pound, freshly slaked lime two pounds, and
150 gallons of water. The addition of the lime is to
prevent any caustic injury to the foliage. This for-
mula varies somewhat with the plants sprayed. It can
be used upon potatoes, apple trees, and most species of
shade trees. For stone fruits the amount of water
should be doubled, since leaves such as peach leaves are
easily injured by arsenites. This spray when being
used must be kept in a constant state of agitation, or
the poison will settle. The liquid at the bottom of the

304

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

tank will be so strong as to injure the foliage, while
that at the top will be useless. (See requisites for a
spraying-pump. )

FIG. 231. The "Pomona" spray-pump, mounted on end of barrel. Used to
spray with arsenical mixtures.

LONDON PURPLE. - This is a by-product in the manu-
facture of aniline dyes. It is an arsenite of lime, and
contains a variable amount of arsenic. The average
may be considered from 30% to 50% arsenic. It is
a finer powder than Paris green, likely to remain longer

INJURIOUS INSECTS

305

in suspension. It sometimes contains much soluble
arsenic, however; hence, is more liable to burn the fo-
liage. Its use in spraying is the same as Paris green,
with the exception that it is advisable to add greater
amount of lime.

BAIT. -Paris green or London purple 1 ounce,
chopped grass or clover 8 ounces, and enough syrup to
permit the mass to be worked into balls. These balls
are spread around gardens for wire-worms, beetles,
crickets, katydids, etc. For grasshoppers and cut-
worms, mix 40 pounds bran, 15 pounds middlings, ar-
senic 20 pounds, cheap grade of syrup 2 gallons. Mix
in soft water to a paste.

For Insects with Sucking Mouth-parts.

KEROSENE EMULSION. - It is evident that such in-
sects will not imbibe sufficient arsenic placed on a leaf,
under the cuticle of which the sucking insects are with-
drawing plant juices, to poison them. These insects
are destroyed by contact poisons or external irritants,
such as kerosene emulsion ; a spray composed of soft
water 1 gallon, hard soap ? pound. The soap is dis-
solved in the water by shaving and then boiling with
the water. Remove from fire and add 2 gallons of
kerosene ; mix thoroughly, add 30 gallons of soft water
and apply with kerosene emulsion spraying-pump. To
kill, this must reach the bodies of the insects. The
substance is penetrating, and enters the breathing-tubes
through spiracles of the body, interfering with respira-
tion, and finally choking the insect.

Crude petroleum, applied with emulsion spraying-
pump during winter months when leaf buds are closed
20

306

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

and fully dormant. For scale insects, sufficient should
be applied to moisten bark of the tree. It is not safe to
apply in excess, since there is a liability of injuring
the tree. This substance should never be used during
the growing season.

Fio. 232. " Kerowater " spray-pump. Designed for mechanically mixing and
spraying kerosene and water. The oil and water are mixed and discharged in
a milk-like emulsion.

Inaccessible Insects. Carbon bisulphide, a very vola-
tile and highly inflammable liquid. The vapor is very
destructive to animal life. The vapor, being heavier
than air, is effective against root insects and insects

INJURIOUS INSECTS

307

in stored grains. For root insects it is poured into
holes, which are immediately closed up, causing the
fumes to permeate the soil in all directions. For in-
sects in grain bins, pans of this liquid are placed <m
the tup of the grain or stored material. The vapor
descends through the stored material. About a tea-
spoonful is required for each cubic foot of space.
Lighted lamps, fire, lighted pipes or cigars must be
kept from the building while this method of fumiga-
tion is in progress.

BORDEAUX MIXTURE. - This is primarily a fungi-
cide, but has likewise insecticide qualities in certain
cases. It is frequently used to good effect at the same
time with arsenical sprays for apple scab and other
fungous diseases. Paris green is much more prefer-
able in composition with the Bordeaux mixture. The
formula fur the Bordeaux mixture is as follows:

Sulphate of copper 6 Ibs.

Quicklime 4- Ibs.

Water 40 gals.

Dissolve the copper sulphate in 4- gallons of water; 1
slake the lime in another vessel; add the milk of lime
slowly to the copper sulphate, stirring constantly.
Strain through a sieve or coarse-grained guimysack,
and add the remainder of the water. The mixture is
ready for use. A simple test to make sure that enough
lime is present in the mixture to properly protect, the
plant, is to place some bright metal substance, such as
a knife-blade, in the Bordeaux mixture. If when the
blade is withdrawn there is an appearance of copper

1 The best way to dissolve the sulphate of copper is to suspend it la the water by
means of a bag of coffee-sacking. Use the pulverized sulphate.

308

ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

on the blade, more lime should lu> added until the knife-
blade can be withdrawn untainted. Bordeaux mixture

FIG. 233. Seneca spray-nozzle, giving fan-shaped spray covering considerable
area, and throwing coarse spray. Adapted to throwing spray some distance.

when used with Paris green solution can be used as so
much water; that is, if the amount of water required
in mixing up the Paris green solution is 150 gallons,
pour in the 40 gallons of Bordeaux mixture and then
add the balance or 110 gallons of water, making the
150 gallons of solution of Paris green.

FIG. 234. Vermorel spray-nozzle, affording a conical discharge and fine spray
or mist. Adapted to spraying of trees, etc., at close range.

SPRAYING MACHINERY. - To secure satisfactory re-
sults in spraying, the spray must be kept agitated while
being applied, and the application of the spray, as its
name implies, should be as a fine mist. The agita-

INJURIOUS INSECTS

tion of the material is dependent upon the mechanism
of the pump, the formation of the proper spray or mist
upon the nozzle, and the force of the pump. The tank
or receptacle for the liquid insecticide can conform to
requirements. It may be a small bucket, a barrel, or a
tank 011 wheels.

INJURIOUS INSECTS.

Ants. (Formica sp., order Ilymenoptera.) Insects
frequenting- pantries during summer months. Locate
crevice from which they come, pour in carbon bisul-
fide. Ant-hills in lawns can be destroyed by use of
same substance poured into holes made in the ant-hill.

Aphids, Plant-Lice, Green-Fly. Order Hemiptera.
Minute insects feeding upon tender parts of plants
grown both indoors and outdoors.

Remedies. - Kerosene emulsion; tobacco water. In
greenhouses, fumigation with smoke from burning to-
bacco stems.

Apple. APPLE-TREE BOKEL;, HOUND-HEADED. (/>V
perda Candida Fabr. ; order Coleoptera.) In the fall
the bark of infested young trees discolors near the base
of the trunk. The larva lies beneath this discoloration.
In the spring the barjc cracks, and reddish wood dust
drops. The adult is a pale-brown beetle, with two
creamy white stripes the full length of the body. The
antemur are longer than the body. The egirs are laid
in June and -Inly. The larva spends the season in the
trunk of the tree, boring during the summer months.
The full-grown larva is over an inch long, fleshy, foot-
less, and has a chestnut-brown head.

Preventive. -Heavy coat of whitewash on trunks in

310 ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

latter part of May. Wrapper of mosquito netting
around the lower portion (about two feet high) of
trunk, tied at the top and hilled up against at the bot-
tom. Whitewash upper part of trunk.

Remedy. -Dig out borers with a sharp knife and
strong wire probe.

APPLE-TREE BORER, FLAT-HEADED. -(Chrysobothris
femorata Fabr. ; order Coleoptera. A shining green-
ish black beetle, a little less than half an inch long.
The larva can be found in trunk and larger branches.
May be detected by discolored spots, cracking of bark,
or appearance of sawdust. Mature larva, pale yellow,
head end greatly enlarged and flattened.

Preventive and Remedy. Same as for Round-
headed borer.

APPLE FLEA BEETLE. (Graptodera foliucca Lee.;
order Coleoptera.) Beetle one-fifth inch long, feeding
upon leaves.

Heinedy. Arsenites.

BARK-LICE (especially Mytilqspis sp., Aspldlotus sp.,
Chionaspis sp. ; order Hemiptera). Mite-like insects,
crawling in early spring; later becoming stationary,
and secreting a waxy scale. (See page 1ST.)

Preventive. -Plant unaffected trees.

Rem-edij. Spray with kerosene emulsion during
growing season ; with crude petroleum during dormant
season.

BUD MOTH. ( Tmetoeera ocellana Fabr. ; order
Lepidoptera.) A minute moth, the larvtr of which de-
stroy the flower-buds of apples, pears, plums, etc.

Remedy. Arsenite sprays applied as buds begin to
open, and then ten days later.

INJURIOUS INSECTS

311

TANKER WORM. (Paleacrita rcrnald Peek. ; order
Lepidoptera.) The "measuring-worm" larva, about an
inch long, feeds upon the leaves. When disturbed it
suspends itself by a thread.

Preventive. ribands smeared with tar, printers' ink,
or a similar harmless adhesive substance, placed around
the trunks of the trees, about first of February, to pr&-
vent the ascent of wingless parent female.

Remedy. Thorough spraying with arsenites; very
effective.

CODLING MOTH. ( < 'tiri>oc<if^a ponwnclla Linn.;
order Lepidoptera.) The larva a whitish worm, found
feeding in or toward the core of the apple. Generally
two broods. For adult, see Fig. 104.

Remedies. Thorough spraying with arsenites, when
blossoms have fallen ; then again ten days later. See
pages 129, 131. Can be used profitably with Bordeaux
mixture for apple scab. Two broods. Larvae and
chrysalids will secrete themselves in burlap, cloth or
paper bands in forks of trees, or around trunk. These
can be destroyed every seven to nine days.

FALL WEB WORM. (Hyphaniria cunca Drury ; or-
der Lepidoptera.) A hairy caterpillar varying in color
from gray to pale yellow or bluish black. It feeds upon
the leaves of many trees, and lives in w y ebs.

Remedies. -Remove the webs; crush, or burn occu-
pants. Spray with arsenites.

ROOT LOUSE. (Schizoneura lanigera Hausm. ; or-
der Hemiptera.) A small insect whose presence on
the root is manifested by knotty swellings of roots and
the presence of bluish white " wool." In another form

312 ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

the insect feeds upon the branches. The woolly white
covering is present here also.

Preventive. -Plant unaffected trees.

Remedies. -Hot water. Roots of nursery stock may
be dipped in water having a temperature of 120 to
150 F. Kerosene emulsion or tobacco-dust poured in
trenches around the roots of orchard trees.

TENT CATERPILLARS. ( Clisiocampa Americana
Harris; order Lepidoptera.) Hairy blackish larva?
about two inches in length, white stripe along back,
feeding on the leaves in May and June, emerging from
silken webs or tents in which they spend the time not
occupied in feeding.

Remedies. Cut off egg-covered twigs during winter
and early spring. Burn out or remove nests. Spray
with arsenites.

TUSSOCK MOTH. - - ( Orgy la leucostigma Sm. and
Abb. ; order Lepidoptera.) A bright yellow caterpillar,
with red markings about an inch long; very hairy.

Remedies. Collect foamy egg-masses in fall. Spray
with arsenites.

Apricot.-- PIN -HOLE BORER. ( tfcolytus rugulosus
Ratz. ; order Colcoptera.) See under Peach.

PLUM CURCULIO. See under Plum.

Bean. BEAN WEEVIL OR BEAN BUG. (B ruckus oi-
ler fits Say; order Coleoptera.) Very similar to pea
weevil. A small brown-black beetle. The beetles ap-
pear in fall and spring, and lay eggs in young pods.
The larva- or grubs live in growing seeds.

ReinriUcs. As soon as mature beans are picked,
place them in temperature of 145 F. for an hour;

INJURIOUS INSECTS

313

this does not injure the seed. The beans may also be
placed in tight box or bin and fumigated with carbon
bisulphide.

BAG WORM OR BASKET WORM. (Tliyridopteryx
ephemerae formis Haw.; order Lepidoptera.) The bags
covered with short bits of sticks, empty or containing
the female egg-sac, conspicuous during winter months.
The larva feeds upon both evergreen and deciduous
trees.

Remedies. Arsenites. Hand-picking.

BARK-LICE. See under Apple.

Blackberry. CANE BORER. (Obcrea bimaculata
Oliv. ; order Coleoptera.) Small slender black beetle.
It makes two girdles, an inch apart, near the tip of a
cane, and lays egg between girdles. The larva bores
down the cane.

Remedy. When cane-tip wilts, cut off below lower
girdle, and burn.

ROOTGALL-FLY. (Rhodites rod leu in Sacken; order
Diptera.) The small larva causes galls on roots of
blackberry, raspberry, and rose. The bush appears
sickly. Female dies. Do not confound with true root-
galls.

Remedy. Dig up and burn badly affected plants.

SNOWY TREE CRICKET. (Oecantlius niveus Serv. ;
order Orthoptera.) Small whitish insect; cricket-like.
Punctures canes to deposit eggs. (See Figure 36.)

Remedy. Burn infested canes in winter or very
early spring.

BLISTER BEETLE. (Family Meloidse; order Cole-
optera. ) Soft, slim, long-necked beetles ; some black

314 ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

and others gray or striped. Feeds upon leaves of trees
and many garden plants.

Remedy. Arsenites.

BUFFALO .Morn. --Buffalo Beetle. (Aii/Jtroni* scrof-
ula rice Linn.; order Coleoptera.) The adult is a small
brick-red and white beetle, about one-quarter inch long.
The larva: are small, dark-colored, hairy creatures, in-
festing carpets and woolen goods. The larva do the
damage.

Remedies. Use rugs instead of carpets. Rugs to be
sunned frequently. Infested carpets should be treated
likewise. The floors under them should be thoroughly
scalded. Infested woolen may be placed in tight boxes
and fumigated with carbon bisulphide.

Cabbage. CABBAGE WORM or CABBAGE BUTTERFLY.
(Picris rapes Linn.; order Lepidoptera.) Larvae an
inch long, green, black and yellow markings. Feeds
upon the leaves and heads. Two broods.

Remedies. Hot-water spray at temperature 140 to
160 F. Kerosene emulsion. Salt water sprinkled into

the head.

GREEN LETTUCE WORM. (Pluxia- brassicce Riley ;
order Lepidoptera.) Pale green larva over an inch
long, faint stripes. Feeds upon leaves of many plants,
such as celery, cabbage, and lettuce.

Remedies.- - Kerosene emulsion. Hot water.

HARLEQUIN CABBAGE BUG. ( Miiir/antia hixirion-
ica Halm.; order Hemiptera.) Bug about half-inch
long, orange dots and stripes over blue-black ground ;
somewhat gaudy. Two to feix broods.

Remedies. Hand-picking. Insects will secrete them-

INJURIOUS IXSKCTS

selves in piles of rubbish. In fall, place [tiles <>f rubbish
in patch; burn early in the winter.

LICE. (Family Aphida-; order Ilemiptera.)

Remedy. Kerosene emulsion.

MAGGOT. (PJiorbla braxxicce Bouche; order Dip-
tera.) The maggot, a fly larva, eats its way into the
crown and roots of young; cabbage, cauliflower, rad-
ishes, etc.

Remedies. -For cabbage and cauliflower, pour tea-
spoonful carbon bisulphide in bole close to roots of each
plant. Burn all infested plants.

The "club-root" of cabbage is not due to this, but
is a fungous disease.

Cauliflower. ( CAULIFLOWER OR CABBAGE WORM. See
under Cabbage.

MAGGOT. . See under Cabbage.

Celery. GREEN LETTUCE WORM. See under Cab-
bage.

Cherry CANKER WORM. See under Apple.

PLUM CURCULIO. See under 1'luin.

CHINCH-BUG. See under ( 1 orn.

CLOTHES MOTH.- ( Tinea pellionella Linn. ; order
Lepidoptera.) Small cylindrical .rolls or cases, in cadi
of which is a small, soft-bodied larva. This feeds on
woolens, hair-cloth, fur, and feathers. The adult is a
very small light-brown moth; wing expanse about one-
third of an inch. (See Fig. 120.)

Preventive. After thorough cleansing, airing, sun-
ning of woolens, furs, etc., through May and June.

316 ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

pack away for summer wrapped in stout paper, to pre-
vent entrance of some belated female.

Remedies.- - Thorough sunning of goods likely to be
infested in May and June. Goods which can be readily
placed in tight chests can be fumigated with carbon
bisulphide.

Corn. CHINCH-BUG. (Blissus leucopterus Say; or-
der Hemiptera.) A small dark-colored bug; wings
white, with dark triangular spot on each. The bugs
frequently collect on corn-stalks and leaves so as to
blacken a part of the plants. They frequently obtain
their first spring food in wheat, millet, and other cereals,
forsaking them for the corn after the other cereals are
harvested.

Preventive. -Burning all rubbish in fall. Rotation

of crops.

Remedy. -Ditching. (See Fig. 109.)-

CORN-ROOT WORM. (Diabrotica loiifjicornis and D.
12-punctata; order Coleoptera.) Stalks of corn stunted;
fall over easily. Examination shows many roots sev-
ered. Plain greenish-brown beetles, and yellowish bee-
tles with twelve black spots on back; to be found in the
shooting tassels.

Preventive. Rotation of crops.

CORN BILL-BUGS. (Splienoplionis sp. ; order Cole-
optera.) Black or brown in color; one-fourth to one-
half inch in length ; back marked with longitudinal
ridges. Adults attack corn planted after timothy or
sod, hiding during day at base of corn plants, boring
round holes in stem.

Remedy. - Fall plowing of land.

INJURIOUS INSECTS

317

GRAIN BEETLE OR GRAIN WEEVIL. (Silraiius suri-
namensis Linn; order Coleoptera.) Reddish brown
beetle about one-tenth of an inch in length; feeds in
stored corn or other grain.

Remedy. -bisulphide of carbon.

ANGOUMOIS GRAIN MOTH. ( Gdecliia- cereal ell a-
Oliv. ; order Lepidoptera. ) The larva burrows within
kernels of stored grain, making small round hole. See
Figure 108.

Remedy. Carbon bisulphide.

CORN WORM. See under Tomato.

CORN-ROOT LOUSE. (Aphis maidi-radicis Forbes;
order Hemiptera.) Masses of small bluish lice found
feeding on roots of corn plants.

Remedy. - Thorough spring culture to keep down
weeds upon which lice can also live, and to encourage
the more vigorous growth of the corn.

GRASSHOPPERS. (Family Acridida?; order Orthop-
tera. ) For description, see pages 3-12.

Pre ven tive. -Disk-harrowing in early spring, where
grasshoppers deposit their eggs the fall before.

Remedies. Arsenites in bait. When grasshoppers
are entering a new field, a strip of the field at the place
of entrance may be sprayed with arsenites, to be fed
upon as they enter. Catching with " hopperdozer."

Cucumber. CUCUMBER OR PICKLE WORM. (Eudi-
optis nitidalis Cram.; order Lepidoptera.) Larva
about an inch long, yellowish white, slightly green,
boring into cucumber. There are two broods.

Remedies. -Hand-picking when they first appear.
Infested fruit to be destroyed.

318 ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

MELON WOEM. (Eudioptis Jiyalinata Linn. ; order
Lepidoptera.) Larva about an inch long, slightly
hairy, yellowish green. Feeds on melon leaves and eats
holes into the melon, cucumber, and squash. Two
broods at least.

Remedies. Arsenites applied very early in the sea-
son.

SPOTTED CUCUMBER BEETLE. (Diabrotica 12-punc-
Intn Oliv. ; order Coleoptera.) Yellow and black spot-
ted beetle, one-fourth inch long; feeds on leaves and
fruit. The larva sometimes injures corn root. (See
Corn.)

Preventive. Cover with frames of mosquito net-
ting.

Re mcdy. -Tobacco powder liberally applied. Ar-
senites in flour. Ashes sprinkled on plants from two
to three times when they are wet.

STRIPED CUCUMBER BEETLE. ( Dialrolica vittata
Fabr. ; order Coleoptera.) The larva of beetle with
black stripes about one-fourth inch long. The beetle
feeds on the leaves; the larva, about one-eighth inch
long, feeds on roots. There are two broods.

Preventives and remedies same as for Spotted Beetle.

Currant. BORER. (Scsia tipuliformis Linn.; order
Lepidoptera.) Whitish larva, which bores into cur-
rant canes and into gooseberry, spending winter there.

Remedy. -Burn all affected cane in fall and early
spring. Infested canes are made manifest by lack of
vigor and stiffness.

CURRANT SAW-FLY. (Nemahts ventricosus King;
order Hymenoptera.) A yellowish green larva, about
three-fourths inch long, and feeds upon the leaves. Two
to four broods.

INJURIOUS INSECTS

Remedies. Arsenites thoroughly applied to check
first brood. Should be applied before larva* leave the
lowest leaves. Later broods are more difficult to deal
with ; hence, the first brood .should lie promptly checked.

Carpets. BUFFALO BEETLE. See under B.

CLOTHES MOTH. See under C.

CODLING MOTH. See under Apple.

Clover. CLOVER HAY WORM. ( Asopia costal i*
Fabr. ; order Lepidoptera.) A larva which attacks the
dry or partially dry clover.

Remedy. Clean mows out before storing new hay ;
salt the first two or three feet of newly stored hay.

CLOVER SEED MIDGE. (Cecidoini/id leguminicola
Lint.; order Diptera.) Larva feeds upon the forming-
seed, destroying it.

Rented icx. Cut early crop when in full head, and
depend upon second crop for seed. The flies oviposit in
flowers of first crop. Fall plowing in infested fields.
Use lime and kainit in fall after crop is off.

CUT- WORMS. (Agrotis sp. and others; order Lepi-
doptera.) Soft brown to grayish worms feeding upon
tops and crowns or even roots of plants.

Remedy. Arsenical baits placed about in the even-
ing. In garden plots, dig deep narrow holes near plants
to be protected. The worms will fall in and cannot
escape. Worms frequently remain hidden during the
day.

CUT- WORMS, CLIMBING. Several varieties. Worms
climb trees at night and eat off the buds.

Preventive. Cotton batting banded about the tree;
top of band turned down, and worms cannot climb over.

320 ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

Remedies. Arsenical baits.

Elm. CANKER WORM. See under Apple.

BAG WORM. See under B.

ELM -LEAF BEETLE. (Oalleruca xanthomelcena
Schr. ; order Coleoptera.) A small beetle that eats the
green matter from elm leaves, giving the tree a scorched
appearance.

Remedy. Arsenites.

FOUR-STRIPED PLANT-BUG. (Poecilocapsus lineatus
Fabr. ; order Hemiptera.) Bright-yellow hug, with
black stripes. It punctures the young leaves and shoots
of a number of plants.

Remedy. Kerosene emulsion.

Gooseberry. CURRANT BORER. See under Currant.

FOUR-STRIPED PLANT-BUG. See under F.

GRAIN MOTH. See under Corn.

GRAIN WEEVIL. See under Corn.

Grape. APPLE-TREE BORER. See under Apple.

CURCULIO. (Craponius incequalis Say; order Cole-
optera.) A small black or grayish larva; infests the
grape in June and July. Discolors the berry around
the little black hole of entrance.

Remedies. Jar the beetle off in sheets, as with the
plum curculio.

GRAPE SLUG OR SAW-FLY. (Selandria vitis Harris;
order Hymenoptera. ) Larva yellowish green; about
one-half inch long; feeds upon the leaves. Two
broods.

Remedies. Arsenites.

GRAPEVINE FIDIA. ( Fidia viticida Walsh; order

INJURIOUS INSECTS 321

Coleoptera.) A short, broad beetle; riddles the leaves
in June and July. The larva attacks the roots of
grapes -- preferably the Worclen.

Remedies. Strong arsenic sprays for the beetles ;
the larvas on roots can be destroyed by bisulphide of car-
bon.

GRAPE FLEA-BEETLE. (Graptodera clialybea Illig. ;
order Coleoptera.) A blue metallic beetle, one-fourth
inch in length. Feeds upon buds and tender shoots in
spring.

Remedies. Arsenites.

GRAPEVINE SPHINX. (Ampelophaga myron Cramer;
order Lepidoptera.) A large green caterpillar, with
yellow spots and stripes. At maturity is about two
inches in length. Bears a horn at the posterior extrem-
ity, and feeds upon the leaves and young grapes. Two
broods.

Remedies. -Hand-picking. Arsenites to be used in
the early season.

ROOT BORER. See Grapevine Fidia.

SNOWY CRICKET. See under Blackberry.

LEAF-HOPPER. (Erythroneura vitis Harris; order
Hemiptera.) A small insect, less than one-tenth inch
in length. 'Feeds upon leaves, and makes them appear
scorched.

Remedies. -Kerosene emulsion; small bonfires built
at night in vineyard attract many to them. Clean cul-
ture in the fall, to prevent collection of rubbish for
insects to hibernate in.

GREEN-FLY. See Plant-Lice.

GREEN STRIPED MAPLE WORM. (Anisota rubicunda

Fabr. ; order Lepidoptera. ) A yellowish green, longi-
21

322 ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

tudinally striped naked insect, about one and a half
inches long. Feeds on leaves of maple. Two broods.

Remedies. Spray with arsenites, early in the sea-
son. Insect has several parasites which keep it in
check. Many birds prey upon it.

House Plants. See Plant-Lice, Scale Insects, and Ked
Spider.

HESSIAN FLY. See under Wheat.

HORN - FLY OF CATTLE. ( Hcematobia serrata E.
Desv. ; order Diptera.) A small black fly, about one-
sixth of an inch long, tinged with brown and gray.
Characteristic habit is to cluster about the base of the
horn.

Preventive. Greasy substances, such as tallow or
fish oil, will keep insects away from animals for several
days. Spraying the animals with kerosene emulsion.

JUNE BUG. See May Beetle.

LEAF-CRUMPLER. (Phycis indiginella Zeller; order
Lepidoptera.) Brown larva, found within the folded
leaves of the various kinds of plants.

Remedy. Spray with arsenite before the larvae
conceal themselves within the folded leaves. Gather
the folded leaves after the larvse have pupated, and
burn them.

Lettuce. APHIS or GREEN -FLY. A plant-louse

which thrives on lettuce growing under glass.

Preventive. - Tobacco-dust thrown on leaves of plants
when aphis first appears. A better method is to fumi-
gate with tobacco.

GREEN LETTUCE WORM. See under Cabbage.

LICE. See under Plant-Lice.

323

INJURIOUS INSECTS

MAY BEETLK <>i; JUNE BUG. (Lacltn<mt<-nm
Frohl. ; order Coleoptera.) A large familiar brown
beetle, frequently heard buzzing about lamps at night.
Feeds upon leaves of several varieties of trees. The
common white grub, found when turning the soil, is the
larval stage of this beetle. This grub frequently dam-
ages strawberries.

Ecini'dics. Use arsenites for beetle, and grubby
plots can be freed by plowing to expose the grubs to
poultry and field birds. The hogs will likewise clear
the ground. Do not plant strawberries in land where
these grubs are abundant.

MEALY-BUGS. (Dactylopius adonidum Linn.; order
Hemiptera.) White scale insects, which feed upon
greenhouse plants.

Remedies. A small stream of water generally drives
them away from greenhouse plants. House plants may
be washed in soapsuds or the insects can be removed
from tender plants with an old toothbrush.

Maple. MAPLE WORM. See under Green Striped
Maple Worm.

FALL WEB WORM. (Hyphantria cunea Drury;
order Lepidoptera.) Caterpillars feeding in swarms
within large webs in late summer and early fall. Re-
move the web-infested limbs, and burn or crush the
worms thereon. If it is objectionable to remove the
infested limbs, spray the populous web thoroughly with
kerosene emulsion.

BOX-ELDER BUG. See page 18-i.

BAG WORM. See under B.

MAPLE SCALE. (Pulvinarla innumerabilis ; order

324: ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

Hemiptera.) A good-sized brown scale insect. During
the summer months a large cottony egg-sac appears
from the posterior end of the female.

Remedy. Spray with crude petroleum, during the
dormant season.

MOSQUITO. (Family Culicida?; order Diptera.) A
long, slender fly. The females have strong, piercing
mouth-parts used in piercing the cuticle of man and
other animals.

Preventive. -Keep cisterns and rain-barrels well
covered. The surface of all ponds and small pools of
water in the vicinitv, when not drained, should be

J 7

coated during the breeding season with kerosene, since
these insects breed in rain-water.

Pea. PEA WEEVIL. (Bruchus pisi Linn.; order
Coleoptera.) Very similar to Bean Weevil. See under
B. Same remedies.

Peach. -(Aphis pcrsicce Smith; order Hemiptera.)
A dark-brown plant-louse, attacking tops and roots.
More abundant in sandy lands.

Remedies. - Kerosene emulsion for tree colonies.
Tobacco-dust placed in trench around roots of trees for
root colonies.

FLAT-HEADED BORER. See under Apple.

FRUIT BARK BEETLE OR PIN-HOLE BORER. (Scoly-
tus rugulosus Ratz. ; order Coleoptera.) A black beetle
which bores into trunks and branches of peach, plum and
apricot trees. It is about one-tenth of an inch in length.

Remedies. -Hum the affected trees, since this beetle
shows preference for weak or sickly trees. Keep trees
strong and healthy.

INJURIOUS INSECTS

325

PEACH-TREE BORER. (Sannina exitiosa Say; order
Lepidoptera.) Larva whitish, three-fourths inch long
at maturity ; bores into crown and upper roots of peach,
causing gum to exude.

Preventive. -Mounding, i.e., mound up earth about
a foot high around the tree early in the summer, and re-
move late in fall. The moth, then, lays eggs at mound
top, and the larva 1 die from exposure. Only fairly sat-
isfactory.

Remedi/. -The most reliable means of combatting
this insect is to dig out the borers in the late fall and
early spring.

PLUM CURCULIO. See under Plum.

Pear. APPLE-TREE BORER. See under Apple.

BUD MOTH. See under Apple.

CODLING MOTH. See under Apple.

FLAT-HEADED BORER. See under Apple.

PEAR-LEAF BLISTER. (Phytoptus />//>! Scheuten.)
A very small mite, causing blisters on the leaves. The
mites spend the winter under the bud scales.

Remedy. Spray with kerosene emulsion.

PEAR-TREE BORER. (Sesia pyri Harris ; order Lepi-
doptera.) Larva whitish ; feeds under bark.

Remedy. -Dig out the larva with a knife.

PSYLLA. (PsylJa pyricola Forst. ; order Hemiptera.)
Besembles plant-louse ; infests pear twigs when fruit
is setting. Exudes " honeydew >: in which grows a
fungus. This fungus frequently gives the pear twigs
a sooty appearance.

Remedi/. -Repeated sprayings with kerosene emul-
sion, beginning at time leaves are expanding.

HOUND-HEADED BORER. See under Apple.

326 ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

Plum. BUD MOTH. See under Apple.

CANKER WORM. See under Apple.

CURCULIO. ( C onotrachelus nenuphar Herbst. ; or-
der Coleoptera.) The larva is a whitish grub, which
feeds on the fruit.

Remedies. Jar the trees with padded mallet, in
the early morning, beginning when the trees are in
bloom and continuing four or five weeks. Place sheets
under the tree, to catch the beetles as they fall; gather
and destroy. The sheet or canvas may be arranged
upon a frame in the form of an inverted umbrella,
with one section left out to admit the tree; and this
structure may be pushed around from tree to tree on
wheels.

FLAT-HEADED BORER. See under Apple.

PLUM-GOUGER. (Coccotorus scutcllaris Lee.; order
Coleoptera.) The larva feeds on the kernel. The beetle
bores a round hole in the plum. The curculio makes a
crescent mark.

Remedy. Same as for Curculio.

PLUM SCALE. (Lecanium sp. ; order Hemiptera.)
A large brown scale insect.

Remedy. Spray with kerosene emulsion, or in win-
ter months with crude petroleum.

Potato. --COLORADO POTATO BEETLE. (Dorypliora
decemlineata Say; order Coleoptera.) Both beetle and
larva feed upon the leaves.

Remedies. Arsenites.

STALK WEEVIL. (Tricliol>aris trinotata Say; order
Coleoptera.) The larva bores into the stalk of the po-
tato near the ground.

Remedy. - Burn all infested vines.

INJURIOUS INSECTS

327

Quince. ROUND-HEADED BORER. See under Apple.

Raspberry. CANE BORER. See under Blackberry.

ROOT BORER. See under Grape.

ROOTGALL-FLY. (Rliodites radlcum Sacken ; order
Diptera. ) The larva produces galls on the roots of the
raspberry, blackberry, seriously affecting the health of
the plant. These swellings must not be confounded with
the true root-galls found on raspberry, blackberry, apple,
and peach. This root-gall is a fungous disease, espe-
cially noticeable in nursery stock.

Remedy. The best remedy thus far seems to be the
destruction of all infested plants.

SNOWY TREE CRICKET. See under Blackberry.

RED SPIDER. (Tetranychus telarius Linn.) A small
red mite, found on plants both in greenhouse and out-
doors.

Remedy. Strong streams of water from a hose,
kerosene emulsion.

Rose. -ROOTGALL FLY. See under Raspberry.

MEALY-BUG. See under M.

ROSE SLUG. (Selandria rosce Ilarr. ; order Hymen-
optera.) A slug-like worm, soft greenish or yellowish,
about one-half an inch long. It eats large patches in
the upper surface of rose leaves. The leaves appear
scorched, and drop off. Feeding is done by night, and
the slugs rest on the under side of the leaves during
the day.

Remedy. - Forcible stream from a hose will wash off
many. Spray with arsenites.

SAN JOSE SCALE. (Aspldinhix pernidosus fWnst. ;

328 ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

order Hemiptera.) The very small circular scale not
easily detected; lives upon a large number of decid-
uous trees.

Remedies. Frequent applications of kerosene emul-
sion during summer. Several applications of crude
petroleum during the dormant season. Avoid infested
stock.

SCALE INSECTS. See under Plant-Lice.

Squash. BORER. (Melittia ceto Westw. ; order
Lepidoptera.) The larva bores into the root or crown
of the squash and other plants of this family. The
parent moth flies by day.

Remedies. When vines begin to run, cover the
fourth, fifth or sixth 'joints with earth, so that they
may take root and aid in supporting the plant.

SQUASH BUG. (Anasa tnstis De Geer; order Hem-
iptera.) A flattened, rusty, ill-smelling bug, one-half
inch long ; pierces leaves with its sucking beak. Leaves
become yellow and die.

Remedies. The insects will collect at night under
boards laid near the hills, and can be crushed. A thor-
ough spray with kerosene emulsion will kill the young
bugs.

Strawberry. CROWN BORER. (Tyloderma fragance
Riley; order Coleoptera.) A white grub; bores into
the crown of the plant during the middle of summer.

Remedy. Burn over field after fruit is gathered.
If this is unsuccessful, dig up plants and burn them.

MAY BEETLE. See under M.

LEAF ROLLER. (Phoxopteris comptana Frohl. ; order
Coleoptera.) Larva about one-half inch long; feeds on

INJURIOUS INSECTS

the leaves, protecting itself by rolling them up and tying
with threads of silk. Two broods.

Remedies. If arsenites are applied before the leaves
are rolled, the caterpillar may be destroyed; if not,
after fruit is off the leaves of the strawberry plants
should be mowed over, and the stalks and leaves burned.

ROOT BORER. ( Anarsia lineatella Zeller; order
Lepidoptera.) A whitish borer, boring into crown of
plant late in season and remaining there over winter.

Remedy. -Burn the plants.

ROOT LOUSE. (J />///* Forbesii Weed; order Ilem-
iptera.) In the latter part of the season lice appear in
great numbers on the crowns and roots of the plants.

Remedies. -Rotation of crops.

SAW-F.LY. (Empliytus maculata Norton; order
Hymenoptera.) A greenish larva, about three-fourths
of an inch long; feeds upon leaves. Two broods.

Remedies. Spraying with arsenites for second
brood.

Sweet Potato. SAW-FLY. (Schizocerus chants Nor-
ton; order Hymenoptera.) A small larva, which feeds
upon the leaves.

Remedies. Spray with arsenites.

Tomato. - FRUIT WORM. (Heliothis armiger Hub.;
order Lepidoptera.) A pale-green or brown larva,
about an inch long; faintly striped. Feeds upon the
tomato fruit. The same species is found feeding in
the head of the ears of sweet corn. Also attacks cotton.

Remedy. - Hand-picking.

TOMATO WORM. (Phlegethontius celeus Hbn. ; or-
der Lepidoptera.) This large green worm is occasion-
ally seen upon the leaves and stems of the tomato. By

330 ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

reason of its size it is an attractive prey for parasites,
and seldom bec'omes abundant enough to become serious.

Remedies - Hand-picking. Arsenites.

Wheat. CHINCH-BUG. See under Corn.

HESSIAN FLY. (Cecidomyia destructor Say; order
Diptera.) During the winter, small brown seed-pods
("flax-seeds") may be found in the plants near the
roots. These are the chrysalids. Small black two-
winged flies emerge from these in April and May. The
young whitish grubs attack the stalks near the base.
From two to four broods. The fall brood lays its eggs
before the 20th of September. It attacks rye and
barley.

Remedy. Burn or plow under stubble immediately
after harvest, and destroy summer brood which is then
in " flax-seed " stage. Keep down the volunteer wheat ;
postpone sowing the wheat, until after the 20th of Sep-
tember, when eggs will have been deposited on other
plants. Fertilizers added in spring materially aid in-
fected wheat to tiller, and thus outgrow the injury.

FALL ARMY WORM. (Laphygma frugiperda Smith
and Abb.; order Lepidoptera.) A pale-brown cater-
pillar ; feeds upon wheat, corn, rye, and other suc-
culent plants, during September and October. Fre-
quently travel together in the same direction in quest of
food, whence the name.

Remedy. Late fall plowing of fields where pests
have been ; crushing caterpillars with the roller. Wheat-
fields eaten off in fall are not necessarily destroyed.

GRASSHOPPER. See under Corn.

WHITE ANTS or TERMITES. - These insects frequent

INJURIOUS INSECTS

331

orchards, especially those containing old stumps or rub-
bish. More common in Southern States.

Remedy. Carbon bisulphide. Washing trunk of in-
fested tree with a mixture of kerosene emulsion and
arsenites.

WIRE WORM. (Family Elateridce.) These are slim,
brown larva 1 , which feed upon the roots of various
plants. They are the immature forms of the " click
beetle."

Remedy. Arsenical bait of fresh clover or sweet-
ened corn-meal dough. Fall plowing. Rotation of
crops.

332 ELEMENTARY STUDIES IN INSECT LIFE

REFERENCE BOOKS.

PROTECTIVE DEVICES.

Animal Coloration. Beddard. London. 1892.
The Colors of Animals (International Science Series). Poulton.
London. 1890.

SOCIAL AND SOLITARY INSECTS.

The Solitary Wasps. G. W. and E. G. Peckham. Wisconsin

Geological Survey. Madison, Wisconsin.
Ants, Bees and Wasps (International Science Series). J. Lub-

bock. D. Appleton & Company. New York.
Langstroth on the Honey-Bee, revised by Dadant. Charles Dadant

& Son. Hamilton, Illinois.
Harvesting-Ants and Trap-door Spiders, with Supplement. J. T.

Moggridge. L. Reeve & Company. 5 Henrietta Street, Covent

Garden, London.

FLOWERS AND INSECTS.

Fertilization of Flowers. Hermann Muller, translated by D. W.

Thompson. Macmillan & Company. London. 1883.
The Natural History of Plants, Vol. II, Part I. Kerner and

Oliver. Henry Holt & Company. New York. 1895.

OUR FRIENDS AND FOES.

Economic Entomology. John B. Smith. J. B. Lippincott & Com-
pany. Philadelphia. 1896.

Our Common Insects. A. S. Packard. Estes & Lauriat. Boston.

Bulletins and Reports of Division of Entomology, Department of
Agriculture. Washington, D. C.

Mosquitoes. L. O. Howard. McClure, Phillips & Co. New York.

WEALTH OF INSECT LIFE.

Manual for the Study of Insects. J. H. and A. B. Comstock,

Comstock Publishing Co. Ithaca, N. Y. 1895.
Insect Life. J. H. Comstock. D. Appleton & Company. New

York. 1897.
The Insect Book. L. O. Howard. Doubleday, McClure & Co.

New York.
The Cambridge Natural History. Vols. V and VI. Macmillan &

Company. London and New York. 1895.
The Riverside Natural History. Vol. II. Houghton, Mifflin &

Company. New York and Boston.
An enumeration of the published synopses, catalogues, and lists

of North American Insects. C. V. Riley. U. S. Department

of Agriculture, Division of Entomology, Bulletin No. 19. 1888.

INDEX AND GLOSSARY.

Abdomen of grasshopper, 266-
269.

Acquisition of insect forms, 222;
of laboratory material, 239.

Acrididse, 182, 285.
Acridiiiije, 182.
Actifts limn, 194.
JEschninre, 240.
Agrioninae, 240.
A</i-tin sp., 319.
Alaus oculatus, 190.
Alfalfa blossom, fertilization of,
104-107.

Ammopltilti Yarrowi, 66-71, 91,
93.

Amoeba, 34.

Ampelophaga myron, 321.
Anosia plcxippus, 40, 58 ; larva

and pupa of, 58; protective

characteristics of, 59.

.\tnisa tristis, 143, 328.
Angmunois grain moth, 135,
317.

Aisc>i>l<'rt/x pometaria, 124.

AniNotti ntlticunda, 321.

.1 nnplilJialni UK, 42.

" Ant cows," 8.3.

Ants, 291,309; number of facets
in compound eye of, 41; life
history of, 81-85; the habits
of, 247-9 ; modes of observing,
247-9; attending aphids, 185;
mud house of, 83.

Antenna 1 , uses of, 36, 37, 38 ;
of grasshopper, 257 ; of mos-
quito, as auditory organs, 44;
of eecropia moths, 39 ; varied
forms in beetles, 289; in
flies, 298.

Antenna 1 nerves, varied func-
tions of, 42.

Anther, 96.

Aiithrcnus scroftilariae, 148,
314.

Anarxin Unratella, 329.
Aphids, 309; cared for by ants,
83.

AphididsD, 294.
Aphis Forbcsii, 329.
Aphis maidi-radicis, 317.
Aphis pcrsicac, 324.
Apple flea beetle, 310.

Apple, insect enemies of, 309-
312.

Apple-tree borer, flat-headed,
310.

Apricot, insect enemies of, 312.
Aptera, 165, 283, 284, 285.
Arctiidae, 297.
Army worm. 141, 142.
Arnold, quotation of, 47.
Arrangement of insects, 235.
Arsenites, 303.
Asclcpiodora ririilis, 108.
Asilidse, 299.
Asopia costatis, 319.

(333)

334

INDEX AND GLOSSARY

Aspidiotus ancylus, 189.
grcenii, ISO.
perniciosus, 327.
Assassin-bugs, 292.
Auditory organ, 266; location

of, 44.

Austral zone, 208.
Australian ladybird in Califor-
nia, 212.

Backswimmers, 293.

Bag- worm moth, 54, 313.

Bait, 305.

Bark-lice, 310, 313.

Barriers, 204 ; to advance of
creeping insects, 130; to en-
trance, 206; to existence, 200,
207.

Basilarchia arcliippus, 57, 60.

Basket worm, 313.

Bean, insect enemies of, 312.

Bean weevil, 312.

Bean-bug, 312.

Bees, 291; nurse, 78; influ-
ence of, on alfalfa blossom,
107 ; on milkweed blossoms,
110.

Beeswax, secretion of, 78.

Bee-flies, 299.

Beetle, anatomy of, 276-279.

Belostomidae, 293.

Benacus griseus, 185.

Bibionidse, 298.

Bird-lice, 175, 287.

Blackberry, insect enemies of,
313.

Black swallowtail butterfly, the
life of, 13-23; pupa of, show-
ing protective resemblance,
50-53.

Blattidse, 178, 285.

Blissus leucopterus, 316.

Blister beetle, 288, 313.

" Blues and coppers," 294.

Bluebottle-fly, laboratory exer-
cises on, 244, 245.

Bombardier beetle, 51, 53.

Bombiliidae, 299.

Bombus Howardi, 61.

Books of reference, 332.

Book-lice, 286, 287.

Bordeaux mixture, 307.

Boreal zone, 208.

Borer, 310, 327.

Brachynus americanus, 53.

Browning, quotation from, 15.

Breeding-cage, care of, 239 ;
for Lepidoptera, 243.

Brush-footed butterfly, 294.

Bruchus obtectus, 312.

Bruchus pisi, 324.

Buffalo moths, 148, 149, 289,
314.

Buffalo beetle, 314.
Buprestidse, 289.
Butterfly, brush-footed, 294.
Butterfly, classification of, 194.

California, Australian ladybird
in, 212.

Calosoma scrutator, 277.

Camponotus pennsylvanicus, 84.

Canker worm, 124, 311.

Cane borer, 313.

Capsidse, 292.

Carabidse, 288.

Carbon bisulphide as an insecti-
cide, 153, 306.

Carpocapsa pomonella, 125-131,

311.

Carrion beetles, 290.
Carpet beetles, 289.

INDEX AND GLOSSARY

Carpets, insect enemies of, 319.

Caudal direction, 2.14.

Cauliflower, insect enemies of,
315.

Cabbage worm, insect enemies
of, 314.

Cabbage butterfly, 294, 315.

Cabbage worm, 144, 314.

Cabinets, 234.

Caddis-flies, 176, 286, 287;
larva of, 49.

Cecidomyia destructor, 330.
leguminicola, 319.

Cecropia moth, 297; life history
of, illustrated, 24-33.

Cercopidae, 294.

Celery, insect enemies of, 315.

Cephalic direction, 254.

Cerambycidce, 288.

Ceratopsyllus serraticeps, 197.

Cerci, of male grasshopper, 267 ;
of female, 268.

Cicada, 185, 293; mode of pro-
ducing sound, 45; mouth-
parts of, 279-282.

Cicadidse, 293.

Cicindelidse, 288.

Circulatory system, 275.

Chafers, 288.

Chalcis-flies, 290.

Chalcididse, 290.

Chinch-bug, 135-137, 292, 316.

Chitine, 251.

Chrysalis, 2, 29.

Chrysididse, 290.

Chrysobothris femorata, 310.

Chrysomelidaa, 288.

Chrysopa, 48.

Claviger, 42.

Click beetles, 190, 289.

Clisiocampa americana, 123.

Clothes moth, 150-152, 296, .".15.

Clover, insect enemies of, 319.
hay worm, 319.
seed midge, 319.

Clypeus of grasshopper, 257.

Clytus marginicollis, 61.

Coccidse, 294.

Coccinella abdominalis, 133.

Coccinellida>, 289.

Cocoon, 28, 29.

Coccotorus scutellaris, 326.

Cockroach, 152, 153, 178, 285.

Codling moth, 125-131, 311.

Coleoptera, 189-191, 284, 287-
290.

Collecting at lights, 230.

Collembola, 166, 285.

Colony of bees, 73.

Colorado potato beetle, 326.

Complete metamorphosis, 2.

Compound eye, number of facets
in, 41.

Comstock, on wing venation,
295; quotation from. 81 ; ex-
periments with carpenter ant,
84.

Conotrachelus nenuphar, 326.

Cope, quotation from, 94.

Coreidsc, 292.

Corn, insect enemies of, 31(i.

Corn bill-bugs, 316.

Corn-root worm, 316, 317.

Corn-root louse, 317.

Corpusculum, 109.

Coxa, of grasshopper, 261.

Crane-flies, 298.

Craponius inacqualis, 320.

Crickets, 180, 286; earlike or-
gan of, 44; mode of produc-

336

INDEX AND GLOSSARY

ing sound in, 45 ; night

cricket in Japan, 46.
Crops, rotation of, 302.
Crown borers, 328.
Cuckoo-flies, 290.
Cucumber, insect enemies of,

317.
Cucumber worm, 317.

Culex pungens, 154.

CulicioX 298, 323.

Ourculio, 290, 320.

Cureulionidse, 290.

Currant, insect enemies of, 318.

Currant saw-fly, 318.

Cut- worms, 319.

Cyanide bottle, use of, 253.

Cyaniris pseudargiolus, 40.

Cyclorrhapha, 299.

Dactylopius adonidum, 323.

Damsel-fly, 173.

Darkling beetles, 288.

Darwin on cross-fertilization,
95.

Day-flies, 286.

Dealers in entomological sup-
plies, 237.

Dermestidse, 289.

Diabrotica loiigicornis, 316.
12-punctata, 318.
vittata, 318.

Diaspis snowii, 188.

Digestive tract of honey-bee,
270; of grasshopper, 269-272.

Diptera, 196-198, 284, 298, 299.

Dissecting-needles, how to make,
252.

Dissosteira longipennis, 213,
215.

Distribution, modes of insect,
209.

Dobson-fly, 286.

Dorsal direction, 255.
Doryphora dccem-lineata, 142,

143, 326.
Dragon-flies, 172, 173, 174, 286;

how to rear, 240; number of

facets in compound eye of,

41.

Drone bee, 77.

Du Bartas, quotation from, 73.
Dytiscidse, 288.

Earwig, 285.

Eggs, protection of, 47.

Egg-guide, 268.

Egg-pods, of yellow grasshop-
per, 10; number of eggs in,
12; of cockroach, 153.

Elateridse, 289, 331.

Elfin butterfly, distribution of,
205.

Elm, insect enemies of, 320.

Elm-leaf beetle, 320.

Emphytus maculata, 329.

Erythroneura vitis, 321.

Engravers, 290.

Epicranium of grasshopper, 256.

Ephemeridae, 167.

Epimeron, of mesothorax, 262 ;
of metathorax, 263.

Episternum, of mesothorax,
261; of metathorax, 263.

Erax cinerascens, 197.

Eristalis latifrons, 61.

Eudamus proteus, distribution
of, 203.

Eudamus lathyllus, 195.

Eudioptis nitidalis, 317.
hyalinata, 318.

Eumenidse, 291.

Eurymetopus taurus, 175.

Ephemeridee, 286.

INDEX AND GLOSSARY

337

Eyes of insects, simple and com-
pound, 40.

Eyes of grasshopper, simple and
compound, 255.

Fall army worm, 330.

Fall web worm, 311, 323.

Farm practices to prevent un-
due increase of insects, 301.

Fauna, definition of, 207.

Feigning death, 219.

Femur, 261.

Fidia viticida, 320.

Field collecting, 226.

Filament, 96.

Fish moth, 166, 284.

Fleas, 197.

Flowers, self-sterile, 96-101.

Fluted scale, 212.

Food of black swallowtail but-
terfly, 22, 23 ; of larva, 15, 16.

Forficulidse, 285.

Formalin, use in preservation,
223.

Formica sp., 309.
Formic idee, 291.
Four-striped plant-bug, 320.
Fruit-grower, insect friends and

foes of, 120-134.
Fruit worm, 328.
Fulgoridse, 293.

Galea of grasshopper, 259.
Galeruca xanthomelaena, 320.
Gense of grasshopper, 256.

Geographic distribution, 202-
212.

Gelechia cerealella,, 135, 317.
Geometridae, 297.
Giant water -bug, 185, 293.
Girard, quotation from, 55.

Gomphinae, 240.

Gooseberry, insect enemies of,

320.

Grain beetle, 317.
Grain, weevil, 317.
Grape, insect enemies of, 320.
Grapevine flea beetle, 321.
Grapevine fidea, 320.
Grape saw-fly, 320.
Grape slug, 320.
Grapevine sphinx, 321.
Grapta interrogationis, 195.
Graptodera foliacea, 310.

chalybea, 321.

Grasshoppers, 182, 285, 317.
Grasshoppers, injurious, 137-

141.
Grasshoppers, the yellow, 3 ; life

history of, 3-12; anatomy of

255-276.
Grasshopper, long- winged, 213-

215.

Green lettuce worm, 314.
Green milkweed, 108.
Green-fly, 294, 309, 321.
Green striped maple worm, 321.
Ground beetles, 288.
Gryllidse, ISO, 286.
Gryllotalpa borealis, 181.
Gula of grasshopper, 259.
Gypsy moth, 202, 204.

Habitat, 202.
Haernatobia serrata, 322.
Harlequin cabbage-bug, 314.
Hawk moths, 296.
Hawaii, appearance of milk-
weed butterfly in, 207.
Hearing, sense of, 43.
flrJiothis armiger, 329.
Hemerobidse, 286.

338

INDEX AND GLOSSARY

. Hemiptera, 183-189, 284, 292-
294.

Herbert on fertilization of
plants, 95.

Hesperidse, 294.

Hessian fly, 330.

Heteroptera, 184, 185, 292.

Hexapoda, definition of, 283.

Hildebrand, on fertilization of
alfalfa blossoms, 106, 107.

Home-making, of insects, 91, ( J2.

Homoptera, 185-189, 293.

Honey-bee, 61; friend of the
horticulturist, 131 ; visiting
pear blossom, 98 ; life history
of, 73-81.

Honey-dew, 83.

Hopperdozer, plan of, 140.

Horn-flies, 290; of cattle, 322.

Hornets, 85, 291.

Horns, protective, of caterpil-
lar, 17.

Horse-flies, 928.

House ants, 153.

House-fly, 147, 147, 299; life
history of, 196; laboratory
exercises on, 244, 245.

House plants, insect enemies of,
322.

Hover-flies, 299.

Huber's experiments with ants,
82.

Humming-bird moth. 193, 296.

Uydropliilus, haunt of, 192.

Hydrobatidse, 292.

Hydrophilidse, 289.

Hydrophilus triangutaris, 189.

Hymenoptera, 198; plant-eat-
ing, 198, 199; parasitic, 132,
199-201; stinging, 201, 284,
290, 291.

Hyphantria cunea, 311, 323.
Hypopharynx, 260.

Ichneumon-fly, 290.

Ichneumoiiida}, 290.

Incisalia augustus, 205.

Incomplete metamorphosis, 1.

Injurious insects and modes of
treatment, 309-331.

Insects, injurious, 309-331 ; ar-
rangement of, 235 ; enemies of
man, 154-158; friends of
man, 158-161.

Insecticides, 303.

Instinct, 89-93; limitations of,
92.

Instinct and reason, 93.
Interrogation butterfly, 195;

the larva of, 49 ; pupa of, 50,

51.

Jassida?, 293.

Jumping plant-lice, 294.

June-bug, 288, 323.

Kalliina paralecta, 56.

Katydid, 181; mode of produc-
ing sound, 45.

Kermes nivalis, 187.

pubescens, 188.

Kerosene emulsion, 305.

Knight, on fertilization of
plants, 95.

Labium of grasshopper, 259.
Labrum of grasshopper. 258.
Laboratory, aids in, 251.
Lace-bugs, 292.
Lace-winged flies, 48, 286.
Lachnostcrna fusca, 323.
Laeinia of grasshopper, 259.
Ladybird, 133, 191, 289.

INDEX AND GLOSSARY

339

Lamellicornia, 287.
Lampyridce, 289.
Lantern-flies, 293.
Larva, 2 ; protection of, 50.
Leaf butterfly, 56.
Leaf-hoppers, 293, 321.
Leaf beetles. 288.
Leaf-bugs, 292.
Leaf-roller, 290, 328.
Leaf-miners, 290.
Leaf-crumpler, 322.
Lecanium sp., 320.
Lecaiiium aurantiacum, 187.
Lepicloptera, 192, 284, 294-297

mode of spreading, 233.
Leucania, 141.
Libellulidse, 172-174. 280.
LilieUula pulcliclla, 172, 174.
Lice, true, 189.
Lightning-bugs, 289.
Linnaeus, 122.
London purple, 304.
Long-horned beetles, 288.
Lubbock, on insect vision, 43.
Lucanidae, 288.
Lucky-bugs. 289.
Locustidae, 280.
Ln/ilif/i/inii fi~iif/i/><'>'iJ(i, 330-.
Luna moth, 194.
Lycaenidap, 294.
Lygaeidae, 292.

Madagascar, 211.
Maggot on cabbage. 314.
Mailing insects, 230.
Mullophaga, 175.
Mallophagidae, 175, 287.

Map of a collecting vicinity.
228.

Map, an aid in note-taking, 229.
March-flies, 298.

Materials for field collecting.
223.

Mandibles of grasshopper, 25S.

Mantis religiosa, 138.

Mantidae, 178, 285.

Maple, insect enemies of, 323.

Maple scale, 323.

Maple worm, 323.

Maxillae of grasshopper, 258.

May-flies, 107, 108.

May beetle, 323.

Mealy-bugs, 323.

Measuring-worms, 397.

Melanoplus differentialis, 3, 4;

anatomy of, 255-270.
Mclitlia ceto, 328.
Meloido?, 288, 313.
A Felon worm, 318.
Mentum of grasshopper, 259.
Mrrula migratoria, 164.
Metallic wood-borers. 289.
Metamorphosis, 1, 238, 242.
Memhracidu 1 . 293.
Mesothoracie wing, 205.
Mesothorax. 201.
Metasternum, 203.
Metathoracic leg, 204.
Metatboracic wing, 265.
Metasternum, 203.

Microscope stand, how to make
251.

.Milkweed butterfly. 207. Sec

-\nnfiin jili'.ri/ipus.
Milkweed, fertilization of, 108-

112; entrapping insects, IK).
Mimicry, 57.
Mimicking moths. 59.
Mimicking insects. 01.
Mimicked insects. 01.
Mole cricket. 1ST.
Mosquitoes. 154-158. 298. 324.

840

INDEX AND GLOSSARY

Moths, classification of, 193.
Molting, 2; of caterpillar, 10;

of a grasshopper, 4-7.
Mouth-parts of grasshopper,

258.

Mud-daubers, 63, 291.
Mud shed built by ants, 83.
Murgantia histrionica, 314.
Musca vomitoria, section

through eye of, 42.
Musca domestica, 147.
Muscidse, 299.

Natural selection, 61.
Nematus ventricosus, 318.
Nepidse, 293.
Net, how to make, 223.
Nervous system, of grasshopper,

272, 273.

Neuroptera, 167, 284, 286, 287.
Noctuidae, 297.
Note-book, use of, 227.
Notonectidae, 293.
Notodontidse, 297.
Nymph, 2.
Nurse-bees, 75.
Nycteribia, 42.
Nymphalidae, 294.

Observation, some points for,

240.

Oberca bimaculata, 313.
Odors, production of, 39 ; of

butterfly, 40; uses of, 40.
Oedipodinae, 182.
Occanthus niveus, 313.
Orders, list of, 165.
Orgya leucostigma, 312.
Orthezia graminis, 48.
Orthorrhapha, 298.
Orthoptera, 176-182, 284-286.

Ovipositor, 268 ; of grasshop-
pers, 9.

Oviposition, manner of, in yel-
low grasshopper, 9.

Ovule, 96.

Owlet moths, 297.

Paleacrita vernata, 311.

Palpi, uses of, 36.

Palpiger, of grasshopper, 259.

Palpus of grasshopper, 259.

Parapteron, 262.

Parasitism, 216-218.

Parasitica, 290.

Parasitic insects, 290.

Paris green used as spray, 130,
303.

Panorpida?, 286, 287.

Papilionidse, 294.

Papilio polyxenes, 13-23.

Parnassian butterfly, 207.

Pastinaca sativa, 13.

Pea, insect enemies of, 324.

Pea weevil, 324.

Peach, insect enemies of, 324.

Peach-tree borer, 325.

Pear, insect enemies of, 325.

Pear, fertilization of blossom,
97-101.

Pear-leaf blister, 325.

Pear-tree borer, 325.

Peckham, Geo. W. and Eliza-
beth, quotation from, 71, 72.

Pelopaeus cementarius, 64.

Pentatomidse, 293.

Pepsis formosa, 68.

Perla epliyre, 169.

Perlidse, 168, 286, 287.

Petal, 96.

Petroleum as insecticide, 305.

Peucedanum foeniculaceum, 13.

INDEX AND GLOSSARY

841

Phasmidse, 180, 285.
Phasmomantis Carolina, 179.
PhlryctJiontins celcits, 193, 329.
Phorbia brassicae, 315.
Phoxoptcris comptana, 328.
I'Jiifi-ifi iiulir/inella, 322.
Pinning insects, mode of, 232.
Phryganeidae, 176, 286, 287.
Phytoptus pyri, 325.
Pickle worm, 317.
Pieris oleracea, 40.
Pieris rapae, 144, 314.
Pieridse, 294.
Pigeon horn-tail, 198.
Pin-hole borer, 312.
Pitcher pupa, of humming-bird

moth, 195.

Plant-lice, 185, 186, 309, 321.
Plant-lice cared for by aphids,

83.

Plants and insects, 94-118.
Plum, insect enemies of, 326.
Plum curculio, 312, 325, 326.
Plum-gouger, 326.
Plum scale, 326.
Plitsia brassicae, 314.
Podical plates of grasshopper,

of male, 267; of female, 268.
Podisus spinosus, 53.
Poecilocapftus lineatus, 320.
Polistes, 85.
Pompilidae, 291.
Potato, insect enemies of, 326.
Potato beetle, Colorado, 142.
Praying mantis, 138, 178, 170,

285.

Predaceous insects, 133.
Predaceous diving beetles, 288.
Preservation of insects, 222.

230.
Preserving materials, 225.

Preventives, 302.

Proboscis of butterfly, 23.

Prominents, 297.

Pronuba moth, 92 ; pollenizing

yucca lily, 112-118; head of.

114; ovipositor of, 114.
Prothorax of grasshopper, 260.
Prothoracic leg of grasshopper,

261.

Psilopa, 204.
Psocidse, 286, 287.
Psylla pyricola, 325.
Psyllidse, 294.
Ptilium, 42.

Pulvinaria innumerabilis, 323.
Pulcinaria pruni, 121.
Pupa, protection of, 50.
Pupation of caterpillar, 18, 19.

Queen bee, 74-77.

Queen, of white ants, 170.

Quince, insect enemies of, 327.

Raspberry, insect enemies of,
327.

Records, manner of keeping,
228.

Red spider, 322, 327.

Red mite, 139.

Redtenbacher, on wing-venation.
295.

Reduviidse, 292.

Reference books, 332.

Relaxing insects, 236.

Reproductive system of gra-s
hopper, 276.

Respiratory system of grass-
hopper, 273-275.

Rhodites radicum, 313, 327.

Rhynchophora, 290.

Robber-fly, 197, 299.

342

INDEX AND GLO8BAKY

Robin, classification of, 164.
Rootgall-fly, 313, 327.
Root borer, 329.
Root louse, 329; on apple, 311.
Rose slug, 327.
Rose, insect enemies of, 327.
Rotation of crops, as insect pre-
ventives, 302.
Rove beetle, 289.
Royal jelly, 75.
Runners, 291.

Saturniidse, 297.

Samia cecropia, life history of,
illustrated, 24-33.

San Jose scale, 188, 212, 32G.

Sannina exitiosa, 325.

Kaperda Candida, 309.

Sarcophaga cimbicis, 190.

Sarcophaga, transformations of,
146.

Saw-flies, 290, 329.

Scale insects, 185-187, 294, 322;
remedies for, 306.

Searabseidae, 288.

Scent of butterflies, 40.

ticliisoneura lanigcra, 311.

Rcliizocerus cbenus, 329.

Scoliidae, 291.

Scolytus rugulosus, 312, 324.

Scolytidse, 290.

Scorpion-flies, 286, 287.

Scudder, S. H., 57.

Segments, normal number of, in
caterpillar, 14.

Xclandria vitis, 320 1 .

Nclandria rosae, 327.

Selection, artificial, 219; nat-
ural, 220.

Sepal, 96.

Sesia pyri, 325.

Kesia tipuliformis, 318.
Shakespeare, quotation from, 73.
Sialidse, 286.
Sight, sense of, 40.
Silphidse, 290.
Silvanus surinamensis, 317.
Siricidse, 290.
Skeleton, exo-, endo-, 250.
Skipper, swallowtailed, distribu-
tion of, 203.

Skippers, 294 ; classification of,
193.

Slaves, of ants, 82.

Snout beetle, 191.

Smell, sense of, 37-39.

Snowy tree cricket, 313.

Social development, 63.

Social organization, 219.

Social wasps, 88, .291.

Solitary wasps, 291.

Sound, production of, 45.

Special senses, 34-46.

Species, number of, 162; varia-
tion in, 163.

Sphegidse, 291.

Nphcnophorus, 316.

RphenopJioms ochreus, 191.

Rplicx speciosus, 92.

Sphingida?, 296.

Spiracles, 268.

Spittle insects, 294.

Spotted cucumber beetle, 318.

Spray nozzles, 308.

Spray pump, 304, 305.

Spraying machinery, 308.

Spraying for codling moth, 130.

Sprays, 303.

Spreading-board, 233.

Sprengel on fertilization, 94, 95.

Springtail, 166, 167, 285.

Squash, insect enemies of, 328.

INDEX AND GLOSSARY

JJUJ

Squash-bug, 143, 144, 292, 328.

Stag beetles, 288.

Stalk weevil, 326.

Slaphylinidse, 289.

Stigma, 96.

Sting of bee, means of defense,
52-54.

Stinging, instinctive, 90.

" Stink-bugs," 39, 293.

Hlumoxys, 158.

Stomoxys calcitrans, 147.

Stone-flies, 168, 177, 286, 287.

Strawberry, insect enemies of,
328.

Striped cucumber beetle, 318.

Structure and function of in-
sects, 250-282.

Struggle of life, 212-214.

Style, of pear flower, 96.

" Sugaring," 230.

Supplies, dealers in, 237.

Swallowtail butterflies, 294;
life history of, 13-23; how to
rear, 242-244.

Swarming of bees, 79, 80.

Sympathetic coloration, 56.

Sweet potato, insect enemies of,

329.
Syrphidee, 299.

Tabanidse, 298.

Tabanus, 158.

Taste, sense of, 36; in bees, 37;

in ants, 37 ; in wasps, 37.
TenebrionidcT, 288.
Tennyson, quotation from, 18.
Tent caterpillar. 123, 312.
Tenthredimdse, 290.
Termites, 330.
Termitidse, 169, 286, 287.
Tetranyclius telarius, 327.

Thalessa lunator, 200.

Thrips, 183.

Thysanoptera, 182, 183, 284.

Thysanura, 166, 284.

7'/i i/rldopteryx cphemeracfonii in,

313.

Tibia, 261.
Tiger beetles, 288.
Tiger moths, 297.
Tinea pellionella, 150, 315.
Tineidae, 296.
Tingitidse, 292.
Tipulidse, 298.

Tomato, insect enemies of, 329.
Tomato worm, 329.
Touch, sense of, 36.
Triclwbaris trinotata, 326.
Trap-door spider, 89, 90.
Tree cricket, eggs of, 49.
Tree-hoppers, 293.
Tremcx columba, 198.
Trochanter, 261.
Trombidium locustarum, 139.
Tropical zone, 208.
Tryxalinae, 182.
Tussock moth, 312.
Tyloderma fragariae, 328.

Umbelliferae, 13.
Underground stingers, 291.
Use of tools by an insect, 66-71.

Ventral direction, 254.

Vertex of grasshopper, 257.

Vespa, 85.

Vespa occidcntalis, 61.

Vespida\ 291.

Viceroy butterfly, 60, 162.

Volucella evecta, 61.

Waite on fertilization, 97, 101.
Walking-sticks, 56, 180, 285.

344

INDEX AND GLOSSARY

Warning colors, 214, 216.

Wasps, 85-88 ; friends of horti-
culturists, 132; solitary, 291;
social, 291; thread-waisted,
291.

Water scavenger beetle, 189,
289.

Water-striders, 292.

Water-boatmen, 293.

Water scorpions, 293.

Wheat, insect enemies of, 330.

Whirligig beetles, 289.

" Wigglers," 154.

Weevils, 290.

Williston, S. W., quotation

from, 66.
Worker bee, 77-79.

White ants, 169, 172, 286, 287,
330.

Wire worms, 331.
Wood-boring beetle, 190.

Yellow-jackets, 85, 8'6.
Yucca lily, fertilization of, 112-
118.

Zonal map of United States,
210.

Zones of life, 208.